European Scientific Journal, ESJ

Socio-Environmental Risk Profiles Associated with Rural Activities in the Localities of the Pool Department, Republic of the Congo

Helischa Audrey Makaya — 2026-06-16

Local environmental planning requires diagnostic tools capable of identifying areas and activities that may place pressure on soils, fragile environments and water resources before these pressures become measurable deforestation or forest degradation. This study characterises socio-environmental risk profiles associated with rural activities in seven localities of the Pool Department, Republic of the Congo, using an environmental and social field database. Unlike studies centred on community perceptions or satellite time series, the analysis is deliberately restricted to environmental observations: activity types, localities, proximity to rivers or water points, reported risks to fragile environments, risks to rivers and lakes, soil instability and potential conflicts. Variables relating to sub-projects and direct beneficiaries were not used. The results show that agriculture dominates most localities, whilst Mindouli displays a mixed agro-pastoral profile, Koubola a distinctive pastoral profile, and Yalavounga, Yangui and Linzolo very high hydrological sensitivity. Reported risks to fragile environments and water resources are particularly visible in Missafou, Yalavounga and Linzolo. The paper proposes an environmental vigilance typology distinguishing multi-activity, agricultural-riparian, mixed agro-pastoral and pastoral profiles. This typology offers a practical basis for prioritising local environmental monitoring, riparian protection and the introduction of agroecological practices in rural landscapes of the Pool Department.

Legal Nature and Regulatory Models of Zero-Hours Contracts in a Comparative Legal Perspective

Irakli Shamatava — 2026-06-16

A zero-hours contract represents a form of non-standard employment under which the employer does not undertake an obligation to provide the employee with a minimum number of workings hours, while the performance of work depends on the employer's current operational needs and fluctuations in labor demand. In modern doctrine, it is not regarded as a unified and clearly defined legal category, which renders the issue of its labor-law qualification particularly topical. Zero-hours contracts are widely prevalent in numerous European jurisdictions, however, Georgian labor legislation does not provide for their specific regulation. This regulatory gap gives rise to significant theoretical and practical challenges in terms of their labor-law qualification and the effective protection of the employee as the weaker party to the employment relationship.

The purpose of this study is to determine the labor-law qualification of the zero-hours contract and to distinguish it from a Service Agreement (service contract). The research is based on doctrinal, comparative-legal, and functional methods. It analyzes the legal models of the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, and the Netherlands, alongside international labor standards and contemporary doctrinal approaches.

The results of the study demonstrate that the zero-hours contract does not constitute an independent labor-law institution. Its legal qualification shall be executed based on the actual content of the relationship, while in the presence of characteristics inherent to an employment relationship, such a relationship shall be assessed as an employment relationship, regardless of the formal title of the contract. In this regard, the criteria of subordination, personal performance, organizational integration, and economic dependence are of decisive importance.

The current legal framework of Georgia allows for the assessment of relationships arising within the scope of a zero-hours contract based on the general criteria of an employment relationship; however, the absence of specific regulation creates a risk of legal uncertainty in practice.

Dynamiques d'expansion urbaine et recul du couvert végétal à Bouaké et Korhogo (Côte d'Ivoire) : analyse diachronique par télédétection

Gaoussou Soro — 2026-06-15

En Afrique subsaharienne, l’essor rapide de l’urbanisation provoque un étalement urbain qui transforme progressivement les espaces verts périurbains. En Côte d’Ivoire, la proportion de population vivant en ville est passée de 19 % en 1960 à 51,7 % en 2021. Cette étude examine la croissance du bâti et les mutations de la couverture végétale à Bouaké et à Korhogo entre 2000 et 2025, en récurant à une classification supervisée d’images satellitaires multi-dates, mise en œuvre avec l’algorithme Random Forest sous R. Quatre classes thématiques ont été retenues : zones bâties, végétation, sols nus et plans d’eau. Pour l’analyse diachronique de l’occupation du sol, trois dates de référence ont été considérées : 2000, 2010 et 2025. Les matrices de confusion reposent sur une validation interne fondée sur les pixels extraits des polygones de référence utilisés pour l’apprentissage du classificateur. Les indicateurs d’exactitude doivent donc être interprétés comme des mesures de cohérence interne du modèle et non comme une validation indépendante fondée sur des points de terrain autonomes.

Les résultats mettent en lumière une hausse des surfaces bâties de 56,2 % à Bouaké et de 131,1 % à Korhogo. Dans ces deux villes, le rythme des constructions paraît dépasser celui de la croissance démographique, ce qui renvoie à un étalement urbain peu dense. Les trajectoires d’urbanisation divergent nettement : à Bouaké, l’extension ralentit sensiblement entre 2010 et 2025, tandis qu’à Korhogo la dynamique reste soutenue, au point qu’à l’horizon 2025 la surface bâtie dépassera le couvert végétal résiduel.

En résumé, l’analyse met en évidence une hausse du bâti et un recul des surfaces végétalisées dans les deux départements étudiés. Ces constats peuvent contribuer à approfondir la compréhension des dynamiques d’usage des sols dans les villes secondaires d’Afrique de l’Ouest.

In sub-Saharan Africa, rapid urbanization is driving urban sprawl that is gradually transforming peri-urban green spaces. In Côte d’Ivoire, the proportion of the population living in cities rose from 19% in 1960 to 51.7% in 2021. This study examines the growth of built-up areas and changes in vegetation cover in Bouaké and Korhogo between 2000 and 2025, using supervised classification of multi-temporal satellite imagery implemented with the Random Forest algorithm in R. Four thematic classes were identified: built-up areas, vegetation, bare ground, and water bodies. For the diachronic analysis of land cover, three reference dates were considered: 2000, 2010, and 2025. The confusion matrices are based on internal validation using pixels extracted from the reference polygons used for training the classifier. Accuracy indicators should therefore be interpreted as measures of the model’s internal consistency rather than as independent validation based on standalone ground truth points.

The results highlight a 56.2% increase in built-up areas in Bouaké and a 131.1% increase in Korhogo. In both cities, the pace of construction appears to exceed that of population growth, suggesting low-density urban sprawl. Urbanization trends diverge sharply: in Bouaké, urban expansion slows significantly between 2010 and 2025, while in Korhogo the pace remains strong, to the point that by 2025 the built-up area will exceed the remaining vegetation cover.

In summary, the analysis highlights an increase in built-up areas and a decline in green spaces in the two departments studied. These findings can help deepen our understanding of land-use dynamics in secondary cities in West Africa.