Gender Differences in the Use of Foul Language in Punjabi
Keywords:
Punjabi, foul language, gender, Pakistan
Abstract
This study explores the use of foul language and its types in Punjabi from the perspective of gender. In this context, a corpus of Punjabi foul terminology was gathered from 58 male and female Punjabi speakers from urban and rural areas, through an open-ended questionnaire. The theoretical framework of Battistela (2005) was applied. The data was analyzed in tables through a statistical approach with its frequency and phonetic transcription. The study revealed that, Punjabi speaking people use foul language in many ways, types and situations. The study also found that males use more abusive terminology while there is less use of coarse words by females. The study revealed swear-word use is more derogatory and directed more towards the females rather than the males. Findings from this study contribute to the research on the use of foul language which is still in its infancy and to the lexicology of Punjabi language.
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References
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9. Bendixen, M., & Gabriel, U. (2013). Social judgment of aggressive language: Effects of target and sender sex on the evaluation of slurs. Scandinavian: Journal of Psychology, 54(3), 236-242.
10. Benwell, B., (2001). Male gossip and language play in the letters pages of men’s lifestyle magazines. J. Pop. Cult, 34, 19–33.
11. Bergen, B. K. (2016). What the F: What swearing reveals about our language, our brains, and ourselves. Hachette UK.
12. Coats, (1993).Women, men and language: A sociolinguistic account of sex difference in language (2nd edition) London: Longman.
13. Coates, J. (2004). Women, Men and Language: A Sociolinguistic Account of Gender Differences in Language. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Limited.
14. Dewaele, J. (2004). Blistering Barnacles: What language do multilinguals swear in? Estudios de Sociolingüística, 5(1), 83-106.
15. Fägersten, K. B. (2007). A sociolinguistic analysis of swear word offensiveness. Saarland Working Papers in Linguistics,1, 14-37.
16. Fairclough, N. (1999). Global capitalism and critical awareness of language.Language Awareness,8 (2), 71-83.
17. Gauthier, M., Guille, A., Rico, F., &Deseille, A. (2015).Text mining and twitter to analyze British swearing habits.Handbook of Twitter for Research.
18. Guerin, B. (1992). Social behaviour as discriminative stimulus and consequence in social anthropology.Behaviour analyst, 15,31-41.
19. Harris, M. B. (1993). How provoking: What makes men and women angry? Aggressive Behavior, 19(3), 199-211.
20. Hindriks, I.M. & Hofwegen, R.H. van. (2014) Godverdomme, ikzieeenhaai: A diachronic research on swearing habits in a Dutch reality TV show. Leiden University: Department of linguistics.
21. Hughes, S. (1992). Expletives of Lower Working-Class Women.Language in Society.Cambridge University Press 21,291-303.
22. Jay, T. (1992).Cursing in America: A Psycholinguistic Study of Dirty Language in the Courts, in the Movies, in the Schoolyards, and on the Streets.John Benjamins Publishing.
23. Jay, T., &Janschewitz, K. (2008).The pragmatics of swearing.Journal of Politeness Research. Language, Behaviour, Culture, 4(2), 267-288.
24. James, D. (1998). Gender-linked derogatory terms and their use by women and men.American Speech, 73(4), 399-420.
25. Jay, T.B. (2009). The utility and ubiquity of taboo words. Psychol. Sci. 4, 153–161.
26. Jing, S. Z. (2017). Cursing, taboo and euphemism. In Routledge Handbook of Chinese Applied Linguistics (1st ed., cp# 25 ).London: Routledge.
27. Jay, T.B. (1996). What to Do When Your Students Talk Dirty. Resource Publications, Inc, San Jose.
28. Jay, K. L., & Jay, T. B. (2013). A child's garden of curses: a gender, historical, and age-related evaluation of the taboo lexicon. The American, Journal of Psychology, Vol. 126, No. 4.
29. Jasperson, O. (1922).Language: Its nature origin and Development. London: Allen and Unwin.
30. Kirk, C. (2013). The most popular swear words on Facebook. Retrieved from http://www.slate.com/blogs/lexicon_valley/2013/09/11/top_swear_words most_popular_curse_words_on_facebook.html.
31. Klerk, V. de. (1991). Expletives: Men Only?” Communications Monographs, (58 (2): 156– 69).
32. Klerk, V. de. (1997). The role of expletives in construction of masculinity. In S. Jhonson& U.H.
33. Klerk, V. de. (1992). How taboo are taboo words for girls? Language and Society, 21, 277- 289.
34. Krouwels, S. (2014). The perceived rudeness of swearwords in English and Dutch, Bachelor’s thesis, Leiden, the Netherlands: University of Leiden.
35. Lakoff, R. (2004). Language and woman's place: Text and commentaries (Revise ed.).New York: Oxford University Press.
36. Lakoff, R. (1975). Language and Woman’s Place. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
37. Ljung, M. (2010).Swearing: A cross-cultural linguistic study.Springer
38. Ljung ,M. (2011). Swearing: a cross-cultural linguistic study (edition 1st).Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan UK 2011-01-01.
39. Ljung, M. 2006. Svordomsboken.Uddevalla: Media Print.
40. Ljung, M. (1983). Fuck you, shithead: Om översättningenavamerikanskasvordomar till svenska.bnInEngwall&Geijerstam, Frånspråk till språk. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
41. Ljung, M. (1984b). Swearing. Studier i Modern Språkvetenskaputgivna i samverkan med nyfilologiskasällskapet i Stockholm, Nyserie Vol. 7. Stockholm: AlmqvistochWiksell International
42. Ljung, M. (1984a). Om svordomar i svenskan, engelskan, ochartonandraspråk. Stockholm: Akademilitteratur.
43. Montagu, A. (1967). The Anatomy of Swearing. New York: Macmillan.
44. Montagu, A. (2001). The anatomy of swearing. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
45. McEnery, T. (2005).Swearing in English. London: Routledge.
46. Maynard, S. K. (2002). Japanese communication: Language and thought in context. Honolulu, Hawaii: Univ. of Hawaii Press.
47. McEnery, T., Xiao, Z., (2003).Fuck Revisited. In D. Archer, P. Rayson, A. Wilson, & A. M. McEnery (Eds.), Proceedings of the corpus linguistics 2003 conference (Vol. 16 (sp, pp. 504-512). Lancaster: Centre for Computer Corpus Research on Language Technical Papers, Lancaster University.
48. Nichols, P., C. (1983). Linguistic Options and Choices for Black Women in the Rural South.In Thorne, K. & Henley, (Eds.), Language, Gender and Society (pp.54-68). Rowley: Newberry House Publications.
49. Nicolau, M.S.F., &Sukamto, E.K. (2014). Male and Female Attitudes towards Swear Words: A Case Study at Binus International School. Institute of research and community Petra Christian University: A biannual publication on the study of language and literature, 16 (2).
50. Pinker, Steven. 2008. The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window Into Human Nature [Audio Video]. Retrieved from: http://thesciencenetwork.org/programs/the-science-reader/the-stuff-of-thought-language-as-a-window-into-human-nature
51. Punjabi language.(2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 04 15, 2011 from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/483596/Punjabi-language
52. Rassin, E., & Muris, P. (2005). Why do women swear? An exploration of reasons for and perceived efficacy of swearing in Dutch female students.Personality and Individual Differences,38(7), 1669-1674.
53. Svensson, A. (2004). Gender Differences in Swearing: Who the Cares? Retrieved from Mid Sweden University http://dooku.miun.se/engelska/englishC/Cessay/HT03/Final/Annika%20Svensson.pdf.
54. Stephens, R. (2013). Swearing is the language of life and death. The Psychologist, 26(9), 650- 653.
55. Suyanto, A. (2010). Javanese swear words in a boarding house: The case of five Soegijapranata Catholic university students. Thesis.Soegijapranata Catholic University, Semarang.
56. Sollid, H. (2009). Attitudes to swear words: gender differences among native and non-native speakers of English. http://www.diva-portal.org/ smash/get/diva2:158456/FULLTEXT01.pdf.
57. Saucier, D. A., Till, D. F., Miller, S. S., O’Dea, C. J., & Andres, E. (2015). Slurs against masculinity: Masculine honor beliefs and men’s reactions to slurs. Language Sciences, 52, 108-120.
58. Selnow, Gary W. 1985. Sex Differences in Uses and Perceptions of Profanity.Sex Roles, 12 (3): 303–12.
59. Thelwall, M. (2008).Fk yea I swear: cursing and gender in Myspace. The journal of Corpora, 3(1), p. 83-107.
60. Vingerhoets, J.J.M., Bylsma, L.M., de Vlam, C. (2013). Swearing: a biopsychosocial perspective.Psychol. Topics, 22, 287–304.
61. Van Oudenhoven, J. P., de Raad, B., Askevis-Leherpeux, F., Boski, P., Brunborg, G. S., Carmona, C., Motti, F. (2008). Terms of abuse as expression and reinforcement of cultures.International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(2), 174-185.
62. West, C. & Zimmerman, D., H. (2009).Accounting for doing gender.Gender & Society, 23 (1), 112-122.
63. Wang, N. (2013). An analysis of the pragmatic functions of swearing in interpersonal talk.Griffith Working Papers in Pragmatics and Intercultural Communications,6,71-79.
64. Zaidi, A. (1990). Linguistic Cleansing: The sad fate of Punjabi in Pakistan. An International Online Journal of Idea &Observation.http://www.gowanusbooks.com/punjabi.htm
65. Meinhof (eds), Language and Masculanity (pp.144-158).Oxford: Blackwell.
2. Andersson, L. G. (1990). Bad Language. Oxford: Blackwell.
3. Andersson, L. G. &Richard, H.(1985b). Swearing Report no. 2, Perspectives on Swearing.Göteborg: Dept. of Linguistics at the University of Göteborg.
4. Andersson, L. G. &Richard, H. (1985a). Swearing, Report no. 1, A Project on Swearing: A Comparison between American English and Swedish.Göteborg: Dept. of Linguistics at the University of Göteborg.
5. Akram, A., &Yasmeen, R. (2011).Attitudes towards English & Punjabi Language Learning in Faisalabad.Journal of Academic and Applied Studies, 1(4), 9-32.
6. Bamgbose, A. (1991). Language and the Nation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
7. Battistella, L.E. (2005). Bad language: Are some words better than others? New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
8. Bayard, D., & S. Krishnayya. (2001). Gender, expletive use and context: Male and female expletive use in structured and unstructured conversation among New Zealand university students. Women and Language, 24 (1), 1-15.
9. Bendixen, M., & Gabriel, U. (2013). Social judgment of aggressive language: Effects of target and sender sex on the evaluation of slurs. Scandinavian: Journal of Psychology, 54(3), 236-242.
10. Benwell, B., (2001). Male gossip and language play in the letters pages of men’s lifestyle magazines. J. Pop. Cult, 34, 19–33.
11. Bergen, B. K. (2016). What the F: What swearing reveals about our language, our brains, and ourselves. Hachette UK.
12. Coats, (1993).Women, men and language: A sociolinguistic account of sex difference in language (2nd edition) London: Longman.
13. Coates, J. (2004). Women, Men and Language: A Sociolinguistic Account of Gender Differences in Language. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Limited.
14. Dewaele, J. (2004). Blistering Barnacles: What language do multilinguals swear in? Estudios de Sociolingüística, 5(1), 83-106.
15. Fägersten, K. B. (2007). A sociolinguistic analysis of swear word offensiveness. Saarland Working Papers in Linguistics,1, 14-37.
16. Fairclough, N. (1999). Global capitalism and critical awareness of language.Language Awareness,8 (2), 71-83.
17. Gauthier, M., Guille, A., Rico, F., &Deseille, A. (2015).Text mining and twitter to analyze British swearing habits.Handbook of Twitter for Research.
18. Guerin, B. (1992). Social behaviour as discriminative stimulus and consequence in social anthropology.Behaviour analyst, 15,31-41.
19. Harris, M. B. (1993). How provoking: What makes men and women angry? Aggressive Behavior, 19(3), 199-211.
20. Hindriks, I.M. & Hofwegen, R.H. van. (2014) Godverdomme, ikzieeenhaai: A diachronic research on swearing habits in a Dutch reality TV show. Leiden University: Department of linguistics.
21. Hughes, S. (1992). Expletives of Lower Working-Class Women.Language in Society.Cambridge University Press 21,291-303.
22. Jay, T. (1992).Cursing in America: A Psycholinguistic Study of Dirty Language in the Courts, in the Movies, in the Schoolyards, and on the Streets.John Benjamins Publishing.
23. Jay, T., &Janschewitz, K. (2008).The pragmatics of swearing.Journal of Politeness Research. Language, Behaviour, Culture, 4(2), 267-288.
24. James, D. (1998). Gender-linked derogatory terms and their use by women and men.American Speech, 73(4), 399-420.
25. Jay, T.B. (2009). The utility and ubiquity of taboo words. Psychol. Sci. 4, 153–161.
26. Jing, S. Z. (2017). Cursing, taboo and euphemism. In Routledge Handbook of Chinese Applied Linguistics (1st ed., cp# 25 ).London: Routledge.
27. Jay, T.B. (1996). What to Do When Your Students Talk Dirty. Resource Publications, Inc, San Jose.
28. Jay, K. L., & Jay, T. B. (2013). A child's garden of curses: a gender, historical, and age-related evaluation of the taboo lexicon. The American, Journal of Psychology, Vol. 126, No. 4.
29. Jasperson, O. (1922).Language: Its nature origin and Development. London: Allen and Unwin.
30. Kirk, C. (2013). The most popular swear words on Facebook. Retrieved from http://www.slate.com/blogs/lexicon_valley/2013/09/11/top_swear_words most_popular_curse_words_on_facebook.html.
31. Klerk, V. de. (1991). Expletives: Men Only?” Communications Monographs, (58 (2): 156– 69).
32. Klerk, V. de. (1997). The role of expletives in construction of masculinity. In S. Jhonson& U.H.
33. Klerk, V. de. (1992). How taboo are taboo words for girls? Language and Society, 21, 277- 289.
34. Krouwels, S. (2014). The perceived rudeness of swearwords in English and Dutch, Bachelor’s thesis, Leiden, the Netherlands: University of Leiden.
35. Lakoff, R. (2004). Language and woman's place: Text and commentaries (Revise ed.).New York: Oxford University Press.
36. Lakoff, R. (1975). Language and Woman’s Place. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
37. Ljung, M. (2010).Swearing: A cross-cultural linguistic study.Springer
38. Ljung ,M. (2011). Swearing: a cross-cultural linguistic study (edition 1st).Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan UK 2011-01-01.
39. Ljung, M. 2006. Svordomsboken.Uddevalla: Media Print.
40. Ljung, M. (1983). Fuck you, shithead: Om översättningenavamerikanskasvordomar till svenska.bnInEngwall&Geijerstam, Frånspråk till språk. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
41. Ljung, M. (1984b). Swearing. Studier i Modern Språkvetenskaputgivna i samverkan med nyfilologiskasällskapet i Stockholm, Nyserie Vol. 7. Stockholm: AlmqvistochWiksell International
42. Ljung, M. (1984a). Om svordomar i svenskan, engelskan, ochartonandraspråk. Stockholm: Akademilitteratur.
43. Montagu, A. (1967). The Anatomy of Swearing. New York: Macmillan.
44. Montagu, A. (2001). The anatomy of swearing. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
45. McEnery, T. (2005).Swearing in English. London: Routledge.
46. Maynard, S. K. (2002). Japanese communication: Language and thought in context. Honolulu, Hawaii: Univ. of Hawaii Press.
47. McEnery, T., Xiao, Z., (2003).Fuck Revisited. In D. Archer, P. Rayson, A. Wilson, & A. M. McEnery (Eds.), Proceedings of the corpus linguistics 2003 conference (Vol. 16 (sp, pp. 504-512). Lancaster: Centre for Computer Corpus Research on Language Technical Papers, Lancaster University.
48. Nichols, P., C. (1983). Linguistic Options and Choices for Black Women in the Rural South.In Thorne, K. & Henley, (Eds.), Language, Gender and Society (pp.54-68). Rowley: Newberry House Publications.
49. Nicolau, M.S.F., &Sukamto, E.K. (2014). Male and Female Attitudes towards Swear Words: A Case Study at Binus International School. Institute of research and community Petra Christian University: A biannual publication on the study of language and literature, 16 (2).
50. Pinker, Steven. 2008. The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window Into Human Nature [Audio Video]. Retrieved from: http://thesciencenetwork.org/programs/the-science-reader/the-stuff-of-thought-language-as-a-window-into-human-nature
51. Punjabi language.(2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 04 15, 2011 from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/483596/Punjabi-language
52. Rassin, E., & Muris, P. (2005). Why do women swear? An exploration of reasons for and perceived efficacy of swearing in Dutch female students.Personality and Individual Differences,38(7), 1669-1674.
53. Svensson, A. (2004). Gender Differences in Swearing: Who the Cares? Retrieved from Mid Sweden University http://dooku.miun.se/engelska/englishC/Cessay/HT03/Final/Annika%20Svensson.pdf.
54. Stephens, R. (2013). Swearing is the language of life and death. The Psychologist, 26(9), 650- 653.
55. Suyanto, A. (2010). Javanese swear words in a boarding house: The case of five Soegijapranata Catholic university students. Thesis.Soegijapranata Catholic University, Semarang.
56. Sollid, H. (2009). Attitudes to swear words: gender differences among native and non-native speakers of English. http://www.diva-portal.org/ smash/get/diva2:158456/FULLTEXT01.pdf.
57. Saucier, D. A., Till, D. F., Miller, S. S., O’Dea, C. J., & Andres, E. (2015). Slurs against masculinity: Masculine honor beliefs and men’s reactions to slurs. Language Sciences, 52, 108-120.
58. Selnow, Gary W. 1985. Sex Differences in Uses and Perceptions of Profanity.Sex Roles, 12 (3): 303–12.
59. Thelwall, M. (2008).Fk yea I swear: cursing and gender in Myspace. The journal of Corpora, 3(1), p. 83-107.
60. Vingerhoets, J.J.M., Bylsma, L.M., de Vlam, C. (2013). Swearing: a biopsychosocial perspective.Psychol. Topics, 22, 287–304.
61. Van Oudenhoven, J. P., de Raad, B., Askevis-Leherpeux, F., Boski, P., Brunborg, G. S., Carmona, C., Motti, F. (2008). Terms of abuse as expression and reinforcement of cultures.International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(2), 174-185.
62. West, C. & Zimmerman, D., H. (2009).Accounting for doing gender.Gender & Society, 23 (1), 112-122.
63. Wang, N. (2013). An analysis of the pragmatic functions of swearing in interpersonal talk.Griffith Working Papers in Pragmatics and Intercultural Communications,6,71-79.
64. Zaidi, A. (1990). Linguistic Cleansing: The sad fate of Punjabi in Pakistan. An International Online Journal of Idea &Observation.http://www.gowanusbooks.com/punjabi.htm
65. Meinhof (eds), Language and Masculanity (pp.144-158).Oxford: Blackwell.
Published
2023-01-11
How to Cite
Akhter, K. (2023). Gender Differences in the Use of Foul Language in Punjabi. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 13, 110. Retrieved from https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/16321
Section
ESI Preprints
Copyright (c) 2023 Khushnood Akhter
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