Surveillance in the Digital Age
Keywords:
Surveillance; Digital Age; Cybersecurity; Privacy; Civil liberties
Abstract
Purpose: With technological progress, electronic devices have become available to almost all people. They use mobile phones, computing devices and other electronic devices every day for both personal and work purposes. The purpose of the research is to analyze how people are being monitored in the digital world and what is needed to protect citizens from mass surveillance. Design/methodology/approach: In the process of developing the research, using scientific methods, both the opinions of scientists about surveillance in the digital age and the past cases of mass surveillance of people's actions in the digital world were analyzed. Findings: In the modern era, almost everyone uses devices for various purposes. Most often they use search engines, social networks, or other means of the digital world. But, they don't realize that not every piece of data they put into cyberspace "disappears." The purpose of the study is to show how the said data is acquired, how they are used, and what dangers humanity is facing if people's private life is not protected from surveillance in the digital age. Research limitations/implications: The research aims to analyze the existing scientific works, studies and articles about the dangers of surveillance in the digital age and to show the problems that exist in the process of fighting against surveillance. In the final part of the study, a minimum of recommendations will be presented, which are important to follow, so that the constitutional rights of people are not violated in the conditions of the possibility of simplified surveillance. Originality/value: There is hardly a person who does not use an electronic device to communicate in cyberspace. They use cyberspace for both work and personal purposes. In many cases, the data that is shared in cyberspace is not secured and through automated surveillance models, certain individuals, groups of individuals or states get hold of people's data, thereby successfully conducting surveillance. Due to the mentioned reasons, the research is of special relevance and it is important to show the means of surveillance and the ways of fighting them to protect fundamental human rights in the digital age.
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References
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41. Martin, J., 2014. Mafia in Florida and Cuba: FBI Surveillance of Meyer Lansky and Santo Trafficante, Jr. The Charleston Advisor, 16(1). 23-25.
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43. Minnaar, A. 2019. Cybercriminals, cyber-extortion, online blackmailers and the growth of ransomware. Acta Criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology, 32(2). 105-125.
44. Mombelli, I., Piodi, F., 2014. The Echelon Affair: The EP and the global interception system 1998-2002. European Parliament History Series. 9-42.
45. Moran, S., 2015. Surveillance ethics. Philosophy Now, 110. 14-15.
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47. Owen, M.D., 2012. A review of intelligence oversight failure: NSA programs that affected Americans. Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin. 33-34.
48. Polyakova, A., Meserole, C., 2019. Exporting digital authoritarianism: The Russian and Chinese models. Policy Brief, Democracy and Disorder Series. 1-22.
49. Ponder, J., 2006. Operation Shamrock: NSA’s First Domestic Spying Program Was Revealed by Congress in 1975. Pensito Review.
50. Reddy, J., 2014. The Central Monitoring System and Privacy: Analysing What We Know So Far. Indian JL & Tech., 10. 41.
51. Reed, J., 2015. Unit 8200: Israel’s cyber spy agency. Financial Times, 10. 1-5.
52. Reveron, D.S., 2012. Cyberspace and national security: threats, opportunities, and power in a virtual world. Georgetown University Press. 3-17.
53. Ritchie, D.A., 1998. Investigating the Watergate scandal. OAH Magazine of History, 12(4). 49-53.
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55. Shubber, K., 2013. A simple guide to GCHQ’s internet surveillance programme Tempora. Wired UK, 24. 1-2.
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60. Theoharis, A.G., 1984. Researching the intelligence agencies: The problem of covert activities. The Public Historian, 6(2). 67-76.
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62. Verble, J., 2014. The NSA and Edward Snowden: surveillance in the 21st century. ACM Sigcas Computers and Society, 44(3). 14-20.
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64. Weissbrodt, D., 2013. Cyber-conflict, cyber-crime, and cyber-espionage. Minn. J. Int'l L., 22. 347.
65. Wright, S., 2005. The ECHELON trail: An illegal vision. Surveillance & Society, 3(2/3). 198-215.
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2. Bauman, Z., Bigo, D., Esteves, P., Guild, E., Jabri, V., Lyon, D., Walker, R.B., 2014. After Snowden: Rethinking the impact of surveillance. International political sociology, 8(2). 121-144.
3. Berman, D.H., Hafner, C.D., 1989. The potential of artificial intelligence to help solve the crisis in our legal system. Communications of the ACM, 32(8). 928-938.
4. Bowden, C., 2013. The US surveillance programmes and their impact on EU citizens' fundamental rights. 10-14.
5. Bronitt, S., 1997. Electronic surveillance, human rights and criminal justice. Australian Journal of Human Rights, 3(2). 183-207.
6. Brennan, B., Gilbert, K., 1983. The Puzzle Palace: A Report on America's Most Secret Agency. In The Fletcher Forum, Vol. 7, No. 1. 199-204.
7. Brenner, S.W., 2010. Cybercrime: criminal threats from cyberspace. Bloomsbury Publishing. 9-38.
8. Bruce, G., 2010. The firm: The inside story of the Stasi. Oxford University Press. 142-161.
9. Bump, P., 2013. The UK Tempora Program Captures Vast Amounts of Data–and Shares with NSA. The Atlantic Wire 21(06). 23.
10. Cadwalladr, C., Graham-Harrison, E., 2018. Revealed: 50 million Facebook profiles harvested for Cambridge Analytica in major data breach. The Guardian, 17(1). 22.
11. Chandel, S., Jingji, Z., Yunnan, Y., Jingyao, S., Zhipeng, Z., 2019. The Golden Shield Project of China: A decade later—an in-depth study of the Great Firewall. International Conference on Cyber-Enabled Distributed Computing and Knowledge Discovery. 111-119.
12. Clayton, R., Murdoch, S.J.,Watson, R.N., 2006. Ignoring the great firewall of China. In International Workshop on Privacy Enhancing Technologies. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 20-35.
13. Cordey, S., 2019. The Israeli Unit 8200–An OSINT-based study: Trend Analysis. ETH Zurich. 4-10.
14. Deibert, R., Rohozinski, R., Manchanda, A., Villeneuve, N., Walton, G., 2009. Tracking ghostnet: Investigating a cyber espionage network. 5-49.
15. Dennis, M. and Laporte, N., 2014. The Stasi: Myth and Reality. Routledge. 25-34.
16. Ensafi, R., Winter, P., Mueen, A., Crandall, J.R., 2015. Analyzing the great firewall of China over space and time. Proc. Priv. Enhancing Technol., 2015(1). 61-76.
17. Ensafi, R., Fifield, D., Winter, P., Feamster, N., Weaver, N., Paxson, V., 2015. Examining how the great firewall discovers hidden circumvention servers. In Proceedings of the 2015 Internet Measurement Conference. 445-458.
18. Eremia, M., Toma, L., Sanduleac, M., 2017. The smart city concept in the 21st century. Procedia Engineering, 181. 12-19.
19. Fiegenbaum, A., 2007. Elite Units of the Israeli Defense Forces-The Story of Unit 8200. In The Take-off of Israeli High-Tech Entrepreneurship During the 1990s. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 111-123.
20. Foucault, M., 2023. Discipline and punish. In Social Theory Re-Wired. Routledge. 291-299.
21. Friedewald, M., Burgess, J.P., Čas, J., Bellanova, R., Peissl, W., 2017. Surveillance, privacy and security. Taylor & Francis. 15-35.
22. Gellman, B., Soltani, A., 2013. NSA infiltrates links to Yahoo, Google data centers worldwide, Snowden documents say. The Washington Post. 30. 1-3.
23. Gellman, B., Soltani, A., Peterson, A., 2013. How we know the NSA had access to internal Google and Yahoo cloud data? The Washington Post. 10(30). 1.
24. Gibson, B., Townes, S., Lewis, D., Bhunia, S., 2021. Vulnerability in massive API scraping: 2021 LinkedIn data breach. International Conference on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence (CSCI). 777-782.
25. Gordon, S., Ford, R., 2006. On the definition and classification of cybercrime. Journal in computer virology, 2. 13-20.
26. Greenwald, G., MacAskill, E., 2013. NSA Prism program taps into user data of Apple, Google and others. The Guardian, 7(6). 1-43.
27. Holden, R.H., 1999. Securing Central America against communism: The United States and the modernization of surveillance in the Cold War. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 41(1). 1-30.
28. Howard, R., 2009. Cyber fraud: tactics, techniques and procedures. CRC press. 21-68.
29. Johnson, L.K., 2004. Congressional supervision of America's secret agencies: The experience and legacy of the Church Committee. Public Administration Review, 64(1). 3-14.
30. Johnson, L.K., 2008. The Church Committee investigation of 1975 and the evolution of modern intelligence accountability. Intelligence and National Security, 23(2). 198-225.
31. Kalathil, S., 2017. Beyond the great firewall: How China became a global information power. Washington, DC: Center for International Media Assistance. 1-6.
32. Laidler, K., 2008. Surveillance Unlimited: How we've become the most watched people on Earth. Cambridge. 17-25.
33. Lanchester, J., 2013. The Snowden files: Why the British public should be worried about GCHQ. The Guardian, 3. 1-5.
34. Lee, R. M., Assante, M. J., Conway, T. 2014. German steel mill cyber attack. Industrial Control Systems, 30(62). 1-15.
35. Lewis, J.A., 2002. Assessing the risks of cyber terrorism, cyber war and other cyber threats. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic & International Studies. 1-12.
36. Liang, G., Weller, S. R., Zhao, J., Luo, F., Dong, Z. Y. 2016. The 2015 Ukraine blackout: Implications for false data injection attacks. IEEE transactions on power systems, 32(4). 317-318.
37. Lichter, A., Löffler, M., Siegloch, S., 2015. The economic costs of mass surveillance: Insights from Stasi spying in East Germany (No. 9245). IZA Discussion Papers. 741-789.
38. Luciano, D., Prichett, G., 1987. Cryptology: From Caesar ciphers to public-key cryptosystems. The College Mathematics Journal, 18(1). 2-17.
39. Lyon, D., 2001. Facing the future: Seeking ethics for everyday surveillance. Ethics and information technology, 3. 171-180.
40. Lyon, D., 2007. Surveillance studies: An overview. 9-69.
41. Martin, J., 2014. Mafia in Florida and Cuba: FBI Surveillance of Meyer Lansky and Santo Trafficante, Jr. The Charleston Advisor, 16(1). 23-25.
42. Miguel, C., 2018. Personal relationships and intimacy in the age of social media. Springer. 15-36.
1. 43.Miller, C.C., 2013. Angry Over US Surveillance, Tech Giants Bolster Defences. New York Times, 31. 1-3.
43. Minnaar, A. 2019. Cybercriminals, cyber-extortion, online blackmailers and the growth of ransomware. Acta Criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology, 32(2). 105-125.
44. Mombelli, I., Piodi, F., 2014. The Echelon Affair: The EP and the global interception system 1998-2002. European Parliament History Series. 9-42.
45. Moran, S., 2015. Surveillance ethics. Philosophy Now, 110. 14-15.
46. Nicholls, J., Kuppa, A., Le-Khac, N.A., 2021. Financial cybercrime: A comprehensive survey of deep learning approaches to tackle the evolving financial crime landscape. Ieee Access, 9. 965-986.
47. Owen, M.D., 2012. A review of intelligence oversight failure: NSA programs that affected Americans. Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin. 33-34.
48. Polyakova, A., Meserole, C., 2019. Exporting digital authoritarianism: The Russian and Chinese models. Policy Brief, Democracy and Disorder Series. 1-22.
49. Ponder, J., 2006. Operation Shamrock: NSA’s First Domestic Spying Program Was Revealed by Congress in 1975. Pensito Review.
50. Reddy, J., 2014. The Central Monitoring System and Privacy: Analysing What We Know So Far. Indian JL & Tech., 10. 41.
51. Reed, J., 2015. Unit 8200: Israel’s cyber spy agency. Financial Times, 10. 1-5.
52. Reveron, D.S., 2012. Cyberspace and national security: threats, opportunities, and power in a virtual world. Georgetown University Press. 3-17.
53. Ritchie, D.A., 1998. Investigating the Watergate scandal. OAH Magazine of History, 12(4). 49-53.
54. Schwarz Jr, F.A., 2007. The Church Committee and a new era of intelligence oversight. Intelligence and National Security, 22(2). 270-297.
55. Shubber, K., 2013. A simple guide to GCHQ’s internet surveillance programme Tempora. Wired UK, 24. 1-2.
56. Soldatov, A. and Borogan, I., 2013. Russia’s surveillance state. World Policy Journal, 30(3). 23-30.
57. Sports, P.O.L., 2013. NSA slides explain the PRISM data-collection program. 1-6.
58. Tawil-Souri, H., 2016. Surveillance sublime: The security state in Jerusalem. Jerusalem Quarterly, (68). 56.
59. Taylor, S.A., Snow, D., 1997. Cold War spies: Why they spied and how they got caught. Intelligence and National Security, 12(2). 101-125.
60. Theoharis, A.G., 1984. Researching the intelligence agencies: The problem of covert activities. The Public Historian, 6(2). 67-76.
61. Thielman, S., 2016. Yahoo hack: 1bn accounts compromised by biggest data breach in history. The Guardian, 15. 1-2.
62. Verble, J., 2014. The NSA and Edward Snowden: surveillance in the 21st century. ACM Sigcas Computers and Society, 44(3). 14-20.
63. Weiss, A., 2009. A digital trail is forever. NetWorker, 13(2). 14-19.
64. Weissbrodt, D., 2013. Cyber-conflict, cyber-crime, and cyber-espionage. Minn. J. Int'l L., 22. 347.
65. Wright, S., 2005. The ECHELON trail: An illegal vision. Surveillance & Society, 3(2/3). 198-215.
66. BBC News. 2019 “Cayman National suffers Manx bank ‘data hack,’”. 19 November, Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-isle-of-man-50475734 (Accessed: September 1, 2023).
67. CNN. 2021 “DC Police Personnel Files Obtained by Hackers in Recent Ransomware Attack, Acting Police Chief Says”. 29 April, Available at: https://www.cnn.com/2021/04/29/politics/dc-police-ransomware-attack-personnel-files/index.html (accessed September 1, 2023).
68. Constitution of the United States: Fourth Amendment. Available at: https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-4/ (Accessed: September 1, 2023).
69. ECHR (Big Brother Watch and Others v. United Kingdom) HUDOC - European Court of Human Rights, Coe. int. Available at: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-186048 (Accessed: September 1, 2023).
70. ECHR (CASE OF ROMAN ZAKHAROV v. RUSSIA) HUDOC - European Court of Human Rights, Coe. int. Available at: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=003-5246347-6510358 (Accessed: September 1, 2023).
71. European Convention on Human Rights. Available at: https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf (Accessed: September 1, 2023).
72. HRW “India: New monitoring system threatens rights”. 7 June, Human Rights Watch. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/07/india-new-monitoring-system-threatens-rights (Accessed: September 1, 2023).
73. The Data Protection Directive. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:31995L0046 (Accessed: September 1, 2023).
74. The General Data Protection Regulation. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32016R0679 (Accessed: September 1, 2023).
75. Time. 2013 “In India, prism-like surveillance slips under the radar.”. 30 June, Available at: https://world.time.com/2013/06/30/in-india-prism-like-surveillance-slips-under-the-radar/ (Accessed: September 1, 2023).
76. Surveillance definition & meaning. Dictionary.com. Available at: https://www.dictionary.com/browse/surveillance (Accessed: September 1, 2023).
77. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Available at: https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights (Accessed: September 1, 2023).
Published
2023-12-06
How to Cite
Nishnianidze, A. (2023). Surveillance in the Digital Age. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 24, 80. Retrieved from https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/17530
Section
ESI Preprints
Copyright (c) 2023 Anri Nishnianidze
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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