Revisiting the Formation and Radicalisation of Boko Haram and Al-Qaeda in the Lands of the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) through Social Movement Theory
Keywords:
Social movement theory factors, Boko Haram, AQIM, Nigeria, Algeria
Abstract
This paper uses social movement theory to examine the rise and development of Boko Haram and AQIM into radical groups. Boko Haram and AQIM were initially established as moderate and conservative Islamist groups in Nigeria and Algeria respectively. AQIM was originally a political party – the FIS but changed names to the GIA, the GSPC, and AQIM each with a different modus operandi. Boko Haram was a local organization that has been espousing an anti-system frame alongside violent tactics since 2009. Relying on secondary data, this paper found that the emergence and eventual transformation of Boko Haram and AQIM into radical movements signify the existence of social movement factors of political opportunity structures, mobilizing structures, and framing processes in Nigeria and Algeria. Results from content analysis of the data show that while the two movements emerged in two distinct socio-economic and political environments, they were rational actors who continued to utilize the available political structures opportunity, mobilizing structures and framing processes to mobilize and sustain collective actions. It is evident that government repression only made the two groups change tactics and strategies when what they regarded as free spaces diminished at times they gathered material and non-material resources. That coincided with the radical views of some of the groups’ members, the presence of mobilizing structures, and a frame resonance that ensured recruitment into the two movements.
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References
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30. Munson, Z. (2001). Islamic mobilization: social movement theory and the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. The Sociological Quarterly, 42(4), 487-510.
31. Olesen, T. (2009). Social movement theory and radical islamic activism. Islamism as social movement. Center for the Study of Islamism and radicalization, Aarhus University, Denmark.
32. Onuoha, F. C. (2012). Boko Haram: Nigeria’s Extremist Islamic Sect. Al Jazeera Centre for Studies, 29(2), 1-6.
33. Perry, M., & Negrin, H. E. (Eds.). (2008). The theory and practice of Islamic terrorism: An anthology. Springer.
34. Pham, J. P. (2011). Foreign influences and shifting horizons: the ongoing evolution of al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb. Orbis, 55(2), 240-254.
35. Robinson, G. E. (2004). Hamas as social movement. Bahrain. In Wiktorowicz, Q. (Ed.). (2004). Islamic activism: A social movement theory approach, 112-139. Indiana University Press.
36. Rogers, B., & Neumann, P. (2007). Recruitment and mobilisation for the Islamist militant movement in Europe. London: Kings College London.
37. Rosenfeld, J. E. (Ed.). (2011). Terrorism, identity, and legitimacy: the four waves theory and political violence. Routledge.
38. Snow, D. A., Rochford Jr, E. B., Worden, S. K., & Benford, R. D. (1986). Frame alignment processes, micromobilization, and movement participation. American sociological review, 464-481.
39. Snow, D., & Byrd, S. (2007). Ideology, framing processes, and Islamic terrorist movements. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 12(2), 119-136.
40. Walker, A. (2012). What is Boko Haram? (Vol. 17). Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace.
41. Wickham, C. R. (2002). Mobilizing Islam: Religion, activism, and political change in Egypt. Columbia University Press.
42. Wiktorowicz, Q. (2004). Introduction: Islamic activism and social movement theory. Islamic activism: A social movement theory approach. In Wiktorowicz, Q. (Ed.). (2004). Islamic activism: A social movement theory approach, 1-33. Indiana University Press.
2. Aljazeera, (2010, February 10), “Video shows Nigeria ‘executions”, Aljazeera retrieved [October, 10, 2023], from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2010/02/2010298114949112.html
3. Atran, S., & Axelrod, R. (2008). Reframing sacred values. Negotiation Journal, 24(3), 221-246.
4. Baylouny, A. M. (2004). Emotions, Poverty, or Politics? Misconceptions about Islamist Movements. Connections, 3(1), 41-48.
5. Beck, C. J. (2008). The contribution of social movement theory to understanding terrorism. Sociology Compass, 2(5), 1565-1581.
6. Bello, M. M. (2021). The terror campaign of Boko Haram: Its transformation and challenges to Nigeria’s security. Golden Ratio of Social Science and Education, 1(2), 85-94.
7. Benford, R. D., & Snow, D. A. (2000). Framing processes and social movements: An overview and assessment. Annual review of sociology, 26(1), 611-639.
8. Borum, R. (2003). Understanding the terrorist mind-set. FBI Law Enforcement Bull., 72, 7.
9. Bowser, E. F., & Sanders, A. (2012). Security threats in the Sahel and beyond: AQIM, Boko Haram and Al Shabab. Civil-Military Fusion Centre.
10. Bowser, E. F., & Sanders, A. (2012). Security threats in the sahel and beyond: AQIM, Boko Haram and Al Shabab. Civil-Military Fusion Centre.
11. Connell, S. (2012). To Be Or Not To Be: Is Boko Haram a Foreign Terrorist Organization? Global Security Studies, 3(3).
12. Danguguwa, K. I. (2014). Islamic Activism in the Sahel: A case of Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and Boko Haram (Master's thesis, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Zirve University).
13. Danguguwa, K. I. (2018). Insurgency under a Democratic Regime in Nigeria, 1999-2016. In Lawan, M. M. (Ed.), Reflections on Democratic Governance in Nigeria, 397-416. Hallmark Publishing Nigeria Limited.
14. Dede, A. Y. (2008). Islamism, State Control over Religion and Social Identity: Turkey and Egypt. (PhD dissertation, Western Michigan University).
15. Fagge, M. M., Danguguwa, K. I., & Muhammad Y. U. (2021). Trans-border crime and its implications on Nigeria’s national security and sustainable development. African Scholar Journal of African Sustainable Development, 21(2), 173-188.
16. Giugni, M., McAdam, D., & Tilly, C. (Eds.). (1999). How social movements matter (Vol. 10). University of Minnesota Press.
17. Gurr, T. R. (1970) Why Men Rebel. Princeton University
18. Haberfeld, M. R., & Hassell, A. (Eds.). (2009). A new understanding of terrorism: case studies, trajectories and lessons learned. Springer Science & Business Media.
19. Hafez, M. M. (2004). From marginalization to massacres. In Wiktorowicz, Q. (Ed.). (2004). Islamic activism: A social movement theory approach, 37-60. Indiana University Press.
20. Hafez, M. M., & Wiktorowicz, Q. (2004). Violence as contention in the Egyptian Islamic movement. In Wiktorowicz, Q. (Ed.). (2004). Islamic activism: A social movement theory approach, 61-88. Indiana University Press.
21. Harmon, S. (2010). From GSPC to AQIM: The evolution of an Algerian islamist terrorist group into an Al-Qa ‘ida Affiliate and its implications for the Sahara-Sahel region. Concerned Africa Scholars, 85, 12-29.
22. Hegghammer, T. (2006). Terrorist recruitment and radicalization in Saudi Arabia. Middle East Policy, 13(4), 39-60.
23. Human Rights Watch. (2012). Spiraling Violence: Boko Haram Attacks, Security Forces Abuses in Nigeria. (Country Report). Retrieved [June, 19, 2013], from http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/nigeria1012webwcover.pdf.
24. Ibrahim, S. U. & Hotoro, B. A. (2019). Socio-economic and political implications of Boko Haram uprising on Nigeria. Ilorin Journal of Administration and Development, 5(1), 36-45.
25. Kabara, B. S., & Danguguwa, K. I. (2018). Effects of Boko Haram Insurgency on Religious Cleavages in Nigeria. Nile Journal of Political Science NJPS, 1(1), 38-49.
26. Lawson, F. H. (2004). Repertoires of contention in contemporary Bahrain. In Wiktorowicz, Q. (Ed.). (2004). Islamic activism: A social movement theory approach, 89-111. Indiana University Press.
27. McAdam, D. (1999). Political process and the development of black insurgency, 1930-1970. University of Chicago Press.
28. McAdam, D., McCarthy, J. D., & Zald, M. N. (Eds.). (1996). Comparative perspectives on social movements: Political opportunities, mobilizing structures, and cultural framings. Cambridge University Press.
29. McCarthy, J. D., & Zald, M. N. (1977). Resource mobilization and social movements: A partial theory. American journal of sociology, 82(6), 1212-1241.
30. Munson, Z. (2001). Islamic mobilization: social movement theory and the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. The Sociological Quarterly, 42(4), 487-510.
31. Olesen, T. (2009). Social movement theory and radical islamic activism. Islamism as social movement. Center for the Study of Islamism and radicalization, Aarhus University, Denmark.
32. Onuoha, F. C. (2012). Boko Haram: Nigeria’s Extremist Islamic Sect. Al Jazeera Centre for Studies, 29(2), 1-6.
33. Perry, M., & Negrin, H. E. (Eds.). (2008). The theory and practice of Islamic terrorism: An anthology. Springer.
34. Pham, J. P. (2011). Foreign influences and shifting horizons: the ongoing evolution of al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb. Orbis, 55(2), 240-254.
35. Robinson, G. E. (2004). Hamas as social movement. Bahrain. In Wiktorowicz, Q. (Ed.). (2004). Islamic activism: A social movement theory approach, 112-139. Indiana University Press.
36. Rogers, B., & Neumann, P. (2007). Recruitment and mobilisation for the Islamist militant movement in Europe. London: Kings College London.
37. Rosenfeld, J. E. (Ed.). (2011). Terrorism, identity, and legitimacy: the four waves theory and political violence. Routledge.
38. Snow, D. A., Rochford Jr, E. B., Worden, S. K., & Benford, R. D. (1986). Frame alignment processes, micromobilization, and movement participation. American sociological review, 464-481.
39. Snow, D., & Byrd, S. (2007). Ideology, framing processes, and Islamic terrorist movements. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 12(2), 119-136.
40. Walker, A. (2012). What is Boko Haram? (Vol. 17). Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace.
41. Wickham, C. R. (2002). Mobilizing Islam: Religion, activism, and political change in Egypt. Columbia University Press.
42. Wiktorowicz, Q. (2004). Introduction: Islamic activism and social movement theory. Islamic activism: A social movement theory approach. In Wiktorowicz, Q. (Ed.). (2004). Islamic activism: A social movement theory approach, 1-33. Indiana University Press.
Published
2024-01-31
How to Cite
Danguguwa, K. I., Hotoro, B. A., & Kabara, B. S. (2024). Revisiting the Formation and Radicalisation of Boko Haram and Al-Qaeda in the Lands of the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) through Social Movement Theory . European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 20(2), 84. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2024.v20n2p84
Section
ESJ Humanities
Copyright (c) 2024 Kabiru Ibrahim Danguguwa, Bello Adamu Hotoro, Bello Sani Kabara
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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