Surveillance in the Digital Age
Keywords:
Surveillance; Digital Age; Cybersecurity; Privacy; Civil liberties
Abstract
Purpose: As technology advances, electronic devices have become ubiquitous among individuals of all backgrounds. From mobile phones to computing devices, people rely on these tools on a daily basis for both personal and professional purposes. The presented research seeks to investigate the extent to which individuals are being monitored in the digital realm and identify solutions to safeguard citizens from the threat of mass surveillance.
Findings: In the modern era, it is common for people to utilize various devices for a multitude of purposes, such as search engines and social networks. However, many are unaware that the information they share online is not always erased from cyberspace. This study aims to shed light on how this data is obtained and utilized and the potential risks humanity faces if privacy is not safeguarded in the digital age.
Research limitations/implications: The objective of this research is to thoroughly examine the current scientific literature, studies, and articles regarding the perils of surveillance in the digital era. The paper aims to highlight the challenges associated with combating surveillance. In the concluding section of the analysis, a concise set of recommendations will be provided, which are crucial to uphold in order to safeguard individuals' constitutional rights in the face of the potential ramifications of streamlined surveillance.
Originality/value: In today's digital age, it has become almost universal for people to communicate through electronic devices in cyberspace, whether for work or personal purposes. Unfortunately, this environment is often not secure, and automated surveillance models can be used to acquire people's data without their knowledge or consent. This raises serious concerns about privacy and the protection of fundamental human rights. That is why it is essential to conduct research that sheds light on the means of surveillance and explores ways to fight against it.
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References
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33. Lanchester, J., 2013. The Snowden files: Why the British public should be worried about GCHQ. The Guardian, 3. 1-5.
34. Lee, R. M., Assante, M. J., Conway, T. 2014. German steel mill cyber attack. Industrial Control Systems, 30(62). 1-15.
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37. Lichter, A., Löffler, M., Siegloch, S., 2015. The economic costs of mass surveillance: Insights from Stasi spying in East Germany (No. 9245). I.Z.A. Discussion Papers. 741-789.
38. Luciano, D., Prichett, G., 1987. Cryptology: From Caesar ciphers to public-key cryptosystems. The College Mathematics Journal, 18(1). 2-17.
39. Lyon, D., 2001. Facing the future: Seeking ethics for everyday surveillance. Ethics and information technology, 3. 171-180.
40. Lyon, D., 2007. Surveillance studies: An overview. 9-69.
41. Martin, J., 2014. Mafia in Florida and Cuba: F.B.I. Surveillance of Meyer Lansky and Santo Trafficante, Jr. The Charleston Advisor, 16(1). 23-25.
42. Miguel, C., 2018. Personal relationships and intimacy in the age of social media. Springer. 15-36.
1. 43.Miller, C.C., 2013. Angry Over U.S. Surveillance, Tech Giants Bolster Defences. New York Times, 31. 1-3.
43. Minnaar, A. 2019. Cybercriminals, cyber-extortion, online blackmailers and the growth of ransomware. Acta Criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology, 32(2). 105-125.
44. Mombelli, I., Piodi, F., 2014. The Echelon Affair: The E.P. and the global interception system 1998-2002. European Parliament History Series. 9-42.
45. Moran, S., 2015. Surveillance ethics. Philosophy Now, 110. 14-15.
46. Nicholls, J., Kuppa, A., Le-Khac, N.A., 2021. Financial cybercrime: A comprehensive survey of deep learning approaches to tackle the evolving financial crime landscape. Ieee Access, 9. 965-986.
47. Owen, M.D., 2012. A review of intelligence oversight failure: N.S.A. programs that affected Americans. Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin. 33-34.
48. Polyakova, A., Meserole, C., 2019. Exporting digital authoritarianism: The Russian and Chinese models. Policy Brief, Democracy and Disorder Series. 1-22.
49. Ponder, J., 2006. Operation Shamrock: N.S.A.'s First Domestic Spying Program Was Revealed by Congress in 1975. Pensito Review.
50. Reddy, J., 2014. The Central Monitoring System and Privacy: Analysing What We Know So Far. Indian J.L. & Tech., 10. 41.
51. Reed, J., 2015. Unit 8200: Israel’s cyber spy agency. Financial Times, 10. 1-5.
52. Reveron, D.S., 2012. Cyberspace and national security: threats, opportunities, and power in a virtual world. Georgetown University Press. 3-17.
53. Ritchie, D.A., 1998. Investigating the Watergate scandal. O.A.H. Magazine of History, 12(4). 49-53.
54. Schwarz Jr, F.A., 2007. The Church Committee and a new era of intelligence oversight. Intelligence and National Security, 22(2). 270-297.
55. Shubber, K., 2013. A simple guide to GCHQ's internet surveillance programme Tempora. Wired U.K., 24. 1-2.
56. Soldatov, A. and Borogan, I., 2013. Russia’s surveillance state. World Policy Journal, 30(3). 23-30.
57. Sports, P.O.L., 2013. N.S.A. slides explain the PRISM data-collection program. 1-6.
58. Tawil-Souri, H., 2016. Surveillance sublime: The security state in Jerusalem. Jerusalem Quarterly, (68). 56.
59. Taylor, S.A., Snow, D., 1997. Cold War spies: Why they spied and how they got caught. Intelligence and National Security, 12(2). 101-125.
60. Theoharis, A.G., 1984. Researching the intelligence agencies: The problem of covert activities. The Public Historian, 6(2). 67-76.
61. Thielman, S., 2016. Yahoo hack: 1bn accounts compromised by biggest data breach in history. The Guardian, 15. 1-2.
62. Verble, J., 2014. The N.S.A. and Edward Snowden: surveillance in the 21st century. A.C.M. Sigcas Computers and Society, 44(3). 14-20.
63. Weiss, A., 2009. A digital trail is forever. NetWorker, 13(2). 14-19.
64. Weissbrodt, D., 2013. Cyber-conflict, cyber-crime, and cyber-espionage. Minn. J. Int'l L., 22. 347.
65. Wright, S., 2005. The ECHELON trail: An illegal vision. Surveillance & Society, 3(2/3). 198-215.
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71. European Convention on Human Rights. Available at: https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
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2. Bauman, Z., Bigo, D., Esteves, P., Guild, E., Jabri, V., Lyon, D., Walker, R.B., 2014. After Snowden: Rethinking the impact of surveillance. International political sociology, 8(2). 121-144.
3. Berman, D.H., Hafner, C.D., 1989. The potential of artificial intelligence to help solve the crisis in our legal system. Communications of the A.C.M., 32(8). 928-938.
4. Bowden, C., 2013. The U.S. surveillance programmes and their impact on E.U. citizens' fundamental rights. 10-14.
5. Bronitt, S., 1997. Electronic surveillance, human rights and criminal justice. Australian Journal of Human Rights, 3(2). 183-207.
6. Brennan, B., Gilbert, K., 1983. The Puzzle Palace: A Report on America's Most Secret Agency. In The Fletcher Forum, Vol. 7, No. 1. 199-204.
7. Brenner, S.W., 2010. Cybercrime: criminal threats from cyberspace. Bloomsbury Publishing. 9-38.
8. Bruce, G., 2010. The firm: The inside story of the Stasi. Oxford University Press. 142-161.
9. Bump, P., 2013. The UK Tempora Program Captures Vast Amounts of Data–and Shares with N.S.A. The Atlantic Wire 21(06). 23.
10. Cadwalladr, C., Graham-Harrison, E., 2018. Revealed: 50 million Facebook profiles harvested for Cambridge Analytica in major data breach. The Guardian, 17(1). 22.
11. Chandel, S., Jingji, Z., Yunnan, Y., Jingyao, S., Zhipeng, Z., 2019. The Golden Shield Project of China: A decade later—an in-depth study of the Great Firewall. International Conference on Cyber-Enabled Distributed Computing and Knowledge Discovery. 111-119.
12. Clayton, R., Murdoch, S.J.,Watson, R.N., 2006. Ignoring the great firewall of China. In International Workshop on Privacy Enhancing Technologies. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 20-35.
13. Cordey, S., 2019. The Israeli Unit 8200–An OSINT-based study: Trend Analysis. ETH Zurich. 4-10.
14. Deibert, R., Rohozinski, R., Manchanda, A., Villeneuve, N., Walton, G., 2009. Tracking ghostnet: Investigating a cyber espionage network. 5-49.
15. Dennis, M. and Laporte, N., 2014. The Stasi: Myth and Reality. Routledge. 25-34.
16. Ensafi, R., Winter, P., Mueen, A., Crandall, J.R., 2015. Analysing the great firewall of China over space and time. Proc. Priv. Enhancing Technol., 2015(1). 61-76.
17. Ensafi, R., Fifield, D., Winter, P., Feamster, N., Weaver, N., Paxson, V., 2015. Examining how the great firewall discovers hidden circumvention servers. In Proceedings of the 2015 Internet Measurement Conference. 445-458.
18. Eremia, M., Toma, L., Sanduleac, M., 2017. The smart city concept in the 21st century. Procedia Engineering, 181. 12-19.
19. Fiegenbaum, A., 2007. Elite Units of the Israeli Defense Forces-The Story of Unit 8200. In The Take-off of Israeli High-Tech Entrepreneurship During the 1990s. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 111-123.
20. Foucault, M., 2023. Discipline and punish. In Social Theory Re-Wired. Routledge. 291-299.
21. Friedewald, M., Burgess, J.P., Čas, J., Bellanova, R., Peissl, W., 2017. Surveillance, privacy and security. Taylor & Francis. 15-35.
22. Gellman, B., Soltani, A., 2013. N.S.A. infiltrates links to Yahoo, Google data centers worldwide, Snowden documents say. The Washington Post. 30. 1-3.
23. Gellman, B., Soltani, A., Peterson, A., 2013. How we know the N.S.A. had access to internal Google and Yahoo cloud data? The Washington Post. 10(30). 1.
24. Gibson, B., Townes, S., Lewis, D., Bhunia, S., 2021. Vulnerability in massive API scraping: 2021 LinkedIn data breach. International Conference on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence (CSCI). 777-782.
25. Gordon, S., Ford, R., 2006. On the definition and classification of cybercrime. Journal in computer virology, 2. 13-20.
26. Greenwald, G., MacAskill, E., 2013. N.S.A. Prism program taps into user data of Apple, Google and others. The Guardian, 7(6). 1-43.
27. Holden, R.H., 1999. Securing Central America against communism: The United States and the modernisation of surveillance in the Cold War. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 41(1). 1-30.
28. Howard, R., 2009. Cyber fraud: tactics, techniques and procedures. C.R.C. press. 21-68.
29. Johnson, L.K., 2004. Congressional supervision of America's secret agencies: The experience and legacy of the Church Committee. Public Administration Review, 64(1). 3-14.
30. Johnson, L.K., 2008. The Church Committee investigation of 1975 and the evolution of modern intelligence accountability. Intelligence and National Security, 23(2). 198-225.
31. Kalathil, S., 2017. Beyond the great firewall: How China became a global information power. Washington, DC: Center for International Media Assistance. 1-6.
32. Laidler, K., 2008. Surveillance Unlimited: How we've become the most watched people on Earth. Cambridge. 17-25.
33. Lanchester, J., 2013. The Snowden files: Why the British public should be worried about GCHQ. The Guardian, 3. 1-5.
34. Lee, R. M., Assante, M. J., Conway, T. 2014. German steel mill cyber attack. Industrial Control Systems, 30(62). 1-15.
35. Lewis, J.A., 2002. Assessing the risks of cyber terrorism, cyber war and other cyber threats. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic & International Studies. 1-12.
36. Liang, G., Weller, S. R., Zhao, J., Luo, F., Dong, Z. Y. 2016. The 2015 Ukraine blackout: Implications for false data injection attacks. IEEE transactions on power systems, 32(4). 317-318.
37. Lichter, A., Löffler, M., Siegloch, S., 2015. The economic costs of mass surveillance: Insights from Stasi spying in East Germany (No. 9245). I.Z.A. Discussion Papers. 741-789.
38. Luciano, D., Prichett, G., 1987. Cryptology: From Caesar ciphers to public-key cryptosystems. The College Mathematics Journal, 18(1). 2-17.
39. Lyon, D., 2001. Facing the future: Seeking ethics for everyday surveillance. Ethics and information technology, 3. 171-180.
40. Lyon, D., 2007. Surveillance studies: An overview. 9-69.
41. Martin, J., 2014. Mafia in Florida and Cuba: F.B.I. Surveillance of Meyer Lansky and Santo Trafficante, Jr. The Charleston Advisor, 16(1). 23-25.
42. Miguel, C., 2018. Personal relationships and intimacy in the age of social media. Springer. 15-36.
1. 43.Miller, C.C., 2013. Angry Over U.S. Surveillance, Tech Giants Bolster Defences. New York Times, 31. 1-3.
43. Minnaar, A. 2019. Cybercriminals, cyber-extortion, online blackmailers and the growth of ransomware. Acta Criminologica: African Journal of Criminology & Victimology, 32(2). 105-125.
44. Mombelli, I., Piodi, F., 2014. The Echelon Affair: The E.P. and the global interception system 1998-2002. European Parliament History Series. 9-42.
45. Moran, S., 2015. Surveillance ethics. Philosophy Now, 110. 14-15.
46. Nicholls, J., Kuppa, A., Le-Khac, N.A., 2021. Financial cybercrime: A comprehensive survey of deep learning approaches to tackle the evolving financial crime landscape. Ieee Access, 9. 965-986.
47. Owen, M.D., 2012. A review of intelligence oversight failure: N.S.A. programs that affected Americans. Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin. 33-34.
48. Polyakova, A., Meserole, C., 2019. Exporting digital authoritarianism: The Russian and Chinese models. Policy Brief, Democracy and Disorder Series. 1-22.
49. Ponder, J., 2006. Operation Shamrock: N.S.A.'s First Domestic Spying Program Was Revealed by Congress in 1975. Pensito Review.
50. Reddy, J., 2014. The Central Monitoring System and Privacy: Analysing What We Know So Far. Indian J.L. & Tech., 10. 41.
51. Reed, J., 2015. Unit 8200: Israel’s cyber spy agency. Financial Times, 10. 1-5.
52. Reveron, D.S., 2012. Cyberspace and national security: threats, opportunities, and power in a virtual world. Georgetown University Press. 3-17.
53. Ritchie, D.A., 1998. Investigating the Watergate scandal. O.A.H. Magazine of History, 12(4). 49-53.
54. Schwarz Jr, F.A., 2007. The Church Committee and a new era of intelligence oversight. Intelligence and National Security, 22(2). 270-297.
55. Shubber, K., 2013. A simple guide to GCHQ's internet surveillance programme Tempora. Wired U.K., 24. 1-2.
56. Soldatov, A. and Borogan, I., 2013. Russia’s surveillance state. World Policy Journal, 30(3). 23-30.
57. Sports, P.O.L., 2013. N.S.A. slides explain the PRISM data-collection program. 1-6.
58. Tawil-Souri, H., 2016. Surveillance sublime: The security state in Jerusalem. Jerusalem Quarterly, (68). 56.
59. Taylor, S.A., Snow, D., 1997. Cold War spies: Why they spied and how they got caught. Intelligence and National Security, 12(2). 101-125.
60. Theoharis, A.G., 1984. Researching the intelligence agencies: The problem of covert activities. The Public Historian, 6(2). 67-76.
61. Thielman, S., 2016. Yahoo hack: 1bn accounts compromised by biggest data breach in history. The Guardian, 15. 1-2.
62. Verble, J., 2014. The N.S.A. and Edward Snowden: surveillance in the 21st century. A.C.M. Sigcas Computers and Society, 44(3). 14-20.
63. Weiss, A., 2009. A digital trail is forever. NetWorker, 13(2). 14-19.
64. Weissbrodt, D., 2013. Cyber-conflict, cyber-crime, and cyber-espionage. Minn. J. Int'l L., 22. 347.
65. Wright, S., 2005. The ECHELON trail: An illegal vision. Surveillance & Society, 3(2/3). 198-215.
66. B.B.C. News. 2019 "Cayman National suffers Manx bank' data hack,'". 19 November, Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-isle-of-man-50475734 (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
67. CNN. 2021 "D.C. Police Personnel Files Obtained by Hackers in Recent Ransomware Attack, Acting Police Chief Says". 29 April, Available at: https://www.cnn.com/2021/04/29/politics/dc-police-ransomware-attack-personnel-files/index.html (accessed January 1, 2024).
68. Constitution of the United States: Fourth Amendment. Available at: https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-4/ (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
69. ECHR (Big Brother Watch and Others v. United Kingdom) HUDOC - European Court of Human Rights, Coe. int. Available at: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-186048 (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
70. ECHR (CASE OF ROMAN ZAKHAROV v. RUSSIA) HUDOC - European Court of Human Rights, Coe. int. Available at: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=003-5246347-6510358 (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
71. European Convention on Human Rights. Available at: https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
72. H.R.W. "India: New monitoring system threatens rights". 7 June, Human Rights Watch. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/07/india-new-monitoring-system-threatens-rights (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
73. The Data Protection Directive. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:31995L0046 (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
74. The General Data Protection Regulation. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32016R0679 (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
75. Time. 2013 “In India, prism-like surveillance slips under the radar.”. 30 June, Available at: https://world.time.com/2013/06/30/in-india-prism-like-surveillance-slips-under-the-radar/ (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
76. Surveillance definition & meaning. Dictionary.com. Available at: https://www.dictionary.com/browse/surveillance (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
77. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Available at: https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights (Accessed: January 1, 2024).
Published
2024-02-20
How to Cite
Nishnianidze, A. (2024). Surveillance in the Digital Age. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 20(37), 1. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2024.v20n37p1
Section
Special Editions
Copyright (c) 2024 Anri Nishnianidze
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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