Digital Linguistic Markers of Emotions during the September 2024 Hostilities in Lebanon: A Case Study in Communication Arts Course at a University Level in Southern Lebanon
Keywords:
Discourse Analysis, Sentiment Analysis, Digital Linguistic Markers, Lebanon, War
Abstract
Language and emotions are intricate systems that have several interactions. Amid the expeditious spread of digitalization and the upswing of various international issues, this case study seeks to explore how students at the Lebanese University in the South utilize language on social media to convey their emotions as of the 2024 clashes and airstrikes in Lebanon. Further, it aims to identify digital linguistic markers that reflect key emotional states and social identity. Drawing on discourse analysis, which acknowledges language as a dynamic system influenced by shared experiences, values, and beliefs, and notably, by Conceptual Act Theory, which explores how meaning is constructed from experiences and perceptions, and on sentiment analysis, a mixed-methods approach is employed. A convenient sampling of (191) university EFL students taking the Communication Arts module during the fall of 2024-2025 completed an online survey of 15 multiple-choice and Likert scale items. Twelve students joined a focus group discussion, and 155 out of 191 participants interacted on the web-based application Padlet. The findings show that utilizing language in the context of social media platforms through words, emojis, hashtags, slogans, or posting articles, images, or videos plays a vital role not only in channeling positive and negative sentiments but also in signaling belonging to a collective identity during times of crisis in Lebanon. The overall analysis indicated that using various linguistic practices on social media platforms communicates positive and negative emotions and upholds social norms and ideologies.
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References
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31. Nandy, H., & Sridhar, R. (2020). Filtering-based text sentiment analysis for the Twitter dataset. Advances in Artificial Intelligence and Data Engineering, 1035-1046. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3514-7_77
32. Negri, A., Andreoli, G., Barazzetti, A., Zamin, C., & Christian, C. (2020). Linguistic markers of the emotional elaboration surrounding the confinement period in the Italian epicenter of the COVID-19 outbreak. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 568281. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.568281
33. Nerbonne J.(2014). The secret life of pronouns. What our words say about us. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 29 (1), 139–142. https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqt006
34. O’Brien, E. (2024). Why are young people so passionate about Gaza? Global Bar Magazine. https://globalbar.se/2024/05/why-are-young-people-so-passionate-about-gaza
35. Osman, N. (2023). War on Gaza: How language used by media outlets downplays Palestinian suffering. Middle East Eye. https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/gaza-war-language-media-outlets-downplays-palestinian-suffering
36. Oprea, D. (2019). Discourse analysis in social media. International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on the Dialogue between Sciences & Arts, Religion & Education, 315–320. https://doi.org/10.26520/mcdsare.2019.3.315-320
37. Ortigosa, A., Carro, R. M., & Quiroga, J. I. (2014). Predicting user personality by mining social interactions on Facebook. Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 80(1), 57-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcss.2013.03.008
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40. Ravi, K., & Ravi, V. (2015). A survey on opinion mining and sentiment analysis: Tasks, approaches, and applications. Knowledge-Based Systems, 89, 14-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.knosys.2015.06.015
41. Sailunaz, K., & Alhajj, R. (2019). Emotion and sentiment analysis from Twitter text. Journal of Computational Science, 36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocs.2019.05.009
42. Smith, E. R. (1993). Social identity and social emotions: Toward new conceptualizations of prejudice. In D. M. Mackie & D. L. Hamilton (Eds.), Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception (pp. 297–315). Academic Press.
43. Smith, E. R., & Mackie, D. M. (2008). Intergroup emotions. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 428–439). The Guilford Press.
44. Stoy, L. (2021). Sentiment analysis: A deep dive into the theory, methods, and applications. Lazarina Stoy. https://lazarinastoy.com/sentiment-analysis-theory-methods-applications/
45. Tajfel, H. (1978). The achievement of inter-group Differentiation. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Differentiation between social groups (pp. 77–100). Academic Press.
46. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of inter-group conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of inter-group relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.
47. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 7–24). Nelson-Hall.
48. Tausczik, Y. R., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2010). The psychological meaning of words: LIWC and computerized text analysis methods. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 29(1), 24-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X09351676
49. Taboada, M., Brooke, J., Tofiloski, M., Voll, K., & Stede, M. (2011). Lexicon-based methods for sentiment analysis. Computational Linguistics, 37(2), 267-307. https://doi.org/10.1162/COLI_a_00049
50. Ye, S., Ho, K.K.W., Wakabayashi, K., & Kato, Y. (2023). Relationship between university students’ emotional expression on tweets and subjective well-being: Considering the effects of their self-presentation and online communication skills. BMC Public Health, 23, 594. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15485-2
51. Zafarani, R., & Liu, H. (2014). Behavior analysis in social media. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 29(4), 67-70. https://doi.org/10.1109/MIS.2014.46
2. Alsaeedi, A., & Khan, M. Z. (2019). A study on sentiment analysis techniques of Twitter data. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications (IJACSA), 10(2), 361–368. https://doi.org/10.14569/IJACSA.2019.0100248
3. Baele, S. J., Sterck, O. C., & Meur, E. (2016). Theorizing and measuring emotions in conflict: The 2011 Palestinian statehood bid case. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 60(4), 718–747. https://doi.org/10.1177/002200271455008
4. Bleiker, R., & Hutchison, E. (2008). Fear no more: Emotions and world politics. Review of International Studies, 34(1), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210508007530
5. Cammaerts, B., & Audenhove, L. V. (2005). Online political debate, unbounded citizenship, and the problematic nature of a transnational public sphere. Political Communication, 22(2), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584600590933188
6. Chalise, A. (2024). Scrolling social media sentiments on the Gaza War. The Cairo Review of Global Affairs. https://www.thecairoreview.com/essays/scrolling-social-media-sentiments-on-the-gaza-war/
7. Chehimi, G., & Joudi, N. (2017). There is a need for peace education in higher education in Lebanon. In Factis Pax, 11(2), 224-247.
8. Eastman, C. M. (1985). Establishing social identity through language use. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 4(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X8500400101
9. Edwards. (2024). Exploring discourse analysis: Language and social reality. Easy Sociology: Research methods, Sociology of language. https://easysociology.com/sociology-of-language/exploring-discourse-analysis-language-and-social-reality
10. Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11
11. Fattah, K., & Fierke, K. (2009). A clash of emotions: The politics of humiliation and political violence in the Middle East. European Journal of International Relations, 15(1), 67-93. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066108100871
12. Gee, J. (2011). An introduction to discourse analysis: Theory and method (3rd ed.). Routledge.
13. Halperin, E., Russell, A., Dweck, C. S., & Gross, J. J. (2011). Anger, hatred, and the quest for peace: Anger can be constructive in the absence of hatred. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 55(2), 274-291. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002710382927
14. He, Q., Glas, C. A. W., Kosinski, M., Stillwell, D. J., & Veldkamp, B. P. (2014). Predicting self-monitoring skills using textual posts on Facebook. Computers in Human Behavior, 33, 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.12.027
15. Jaspal, R. (2009). Language and social identity: A psychosocial approach. University of London.
16. Joudi, N. (2024). Online blogging versus conventional methods: An exploratory study of EFL Lebanese secondary school teachers’ perceptions on teaching writing. Gloria: International Multidisciplinary Studies, 1(1), 23–58.
17. Joudi, N. (2019). Gender leadership styles and linguistic practices: The case of Lebanese International University coordinators. International Journal of Innovative Research in Education, 6(2), 047–061. https://doi.org/10.18844/ijire.v6i2.4362
18. Joudi, N., & Ayoub, N. (2024). Integrating microblogging padlets and SFL framework in teaching persuasive writing skills in a communication arts course at a university level in Lebanon. Gloria: International Multidisciplinary Studies, 1(1), 23-58.
19. Khan, K. (2024). The role of social media in information warfare. LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/role-social-media-information-warfare-khurshid-khan-abkfc/
20. Kharroub, T. (2023). Disinformation and hate speech on social media contribute to inciting war crimes against Gaza. Arab Center Washington DC. https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/disinformation-and-hate-speech-on-social-media-contribute-to-inciting-war-crimes-against-gaza/
21. Kuntsman, A. (2010). Webs of hate in diasporic cyberspaces: The Gaza war in the Russian-language blogosphere. Media, War & Conflict, 3 (3), 299–313.
22. Lindquist, K. A., MacCormack, J. K., & Shablack, H. (2015). The role of language in emotion: Predictions from psychological constructionism. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 444. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00444
23. Lindquist, K. A. (2013). Emotions emerge from more basic psychological ingredients: A modern psychological constructionist model. Emotion Review, 5(4), 356–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073913489750
24. Lindquist, K. A., Wager, T. D., Kober, H., Bliss-Moreau, E., & Barrett, L. F. (2012). The brain basis of emotion: A meta-analytic review. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35(3), 121–143. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X11000446
25. Majid, A. (2012). Current emotion research in the language sciences. Emotion Review, 4(4), 432–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912445827
26. Mehmood, Y., & Balakrishnan, V. (2020). An enhanced lexicon-based approach for sentiment analysis: A case study on illegal immigration. Online Information Review, 44(5), 1468-1485. https://doi.org/10.1108/OIR-10-2018-0295
27. Monroe, K. R. (1996). The heart of altruism: Perceptions of common humanity. Princeton University Press.
28. McFarland, S., Webb, M., & Brown, D. (2012). All humanity is my ingroup: A measure and study of identification with all humanity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(5), 830–853. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028724
29. Medhat, W., Hassan, A., & Korashy, H. (2014). Sentiment analysis algorithms and applications: A survey. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, 5(4), 1093–1113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2014.04.011
30. Nahar, K. M. O., & Jaradat, M. S. F. (2020). Sentiment analysis and classification of Arab Jordanian Facebook comments for Jordanian telecom companies using lexicon-based approach and machine learning. Jordanian Journal of Computers and Information Technology (JJCIT), 6(3).
31. Nandy, H., & Sridhar, R. (2020). Filtering-based text sentiment analysis for the Twitter dataset. Advances in Artificial Intelligence and Data Engineering, 1035-1046. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3514-7_77
32. Negri, A., Andreoli, G., Barazzetti, A., Zamin, C., & Christian, C. (2020). Linguistic markers of the emotional elaboration surrounding the confinement period in the Italian epicenter of the COVID-19 outbreak. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 568281. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.568281
33. Nerbonne J.(2014). The secret life of pronouns. What our words say about us. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 29 (1), 139–142. https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqt006
34. O’Brien, E. (2024). Why are young people so passionate about Gaza? Global Bar Magazine. https://globalbar.se/2024/05/why-are-young-people-so-passionate-about-gaza
35. Osman, N. (2023). War on Gaza: How language used by media outlets downplays Palestinian suffering. Middle East Eye. https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/gaza-war-language-media-outlets-downplays-palestinian-suffering
36. Oprea, D. (2019). Discourse analysis in social media. International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on the Dialogue between Sciences & Arts, Religion & Education, 315–320. https://doi.org/10.26520/mcdsare.2019.3.315-320
37. Ortigosa, A., Carro, R. M., & Quiroga, J. I. (2014). Predicting user personality by mining social interactions on Facebook. Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 80(1), 57-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcss.2013.03.008
38. Pang, B., & Lee, L. (2008). Opinion mining and sentiment analysis. Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval, 2(1–2), 1–135. https://doi.org/10.1561/1500000011
39. Parkinson, B., Fischer, A. H., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2005). Emotion in social relations: Cultural, group, and interpersonal processes. Psychology Press.
40. Ravi, K., & Ravi, V. (2015). A survey on opinion mining and sentiment analysis: Tasks, approaches, and applications. Knowledge-Based Systems, 89, 14-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.knosys.2015.06.015
41. Sailunaz, K., & Alhajj, R. (2019). Emotion and sentiment analysis from Twitter text. Journal of Computational Science, 36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocs.2019.05.009
42. Smith, E. R. (1993). Social identity and social emotions: Toward new conceptualizations of prejudice. In D. M. Mackie & D. L. Hamilton (Eds.), Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception (pp. 297–315). Academic Press.
43. Smith, E. R., & Mackie, D. M. (2008). Intergroup emotions. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 428–439). The Guilford Press.
44. Stoy, L. (2021). Sentiment analysis: A deep dive into the theory, methods, and applications. Lazarina Stoy. https://lazarinastoy.com/sentiment-analysis-theory-methods-applications/
45. Tajfel, H. (1978). The achievement of inter-group Differentiation. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Differentiation between social groups (pp. 77–100). Academic Press.
46. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of inter-group conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of inter-group relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.
47. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 7–24). Nelson-Hall.
48. Tausczik, Y. R., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2010). The psychological meaning of words: LIWC and computerized text analysis methods. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 29(1), 24-54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X09351676
49. Taboada, M., Brooke, J., Tofiloski, M., Voll, K., & Stede, M. (2011). Lexicon-based methods for sentiment analysis. Computational Linguistics, 37(2), 267-307. https://doi.org/10.1162/COLI_a_00049
50. Ye, S., Ho, K.K.W., Wakabayashi, K., & Kato, Y. (2023). Relationship between university students’ emotional expression on tweets and subjective well-being: Considering the effects of their self-presentation and online communication skills. BMC Public Health, 23, 594. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15485-2
51. Zafarani, R., & Liu, H. (2014). Behavior analysis in social media. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 29(4), 67-70. https://doi.org/10.1109/MIS.2014.46
Published
2025-03-31
How to Cite
Joudi, N. S., & Ayoub, N. N. (2025). Digital Linguistic Markers of Emotions during the September 2024 Hostilities in Lebanon: A Case Study in Communication Arts Course at a University Level in Southern Lebanon. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 21(8), 47. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2025.v21n8p47
Section
ESJ Humanities
Copyright (c) 2025 Nadine Sami Joudi, Nawal Nabih Ayoub
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
