Framing the Decision: An Experimental Study on Managerial Judgements Post-Leadership Training
Keywords:
Framing effect, decision-making, leadership training, behavioral biases, experimental research, managerial psychology
Abstract
This study was designed to contribute to the literature on behavioral economics and managerial psychology by investigating the influence of cognitive biases on decision-making processes. The research experimentally examines how managerial investment decisions may vary when identical market information is framed positively or negatively (framing effect). The study involved a total of 45 managers employed at a university. Participants first received a four-hour leadership training and were then randomly divided into two groups. Each group was presented with identical investment content, but framed differently. One group received information emphasizing investment opportunities (positive framing), while the other was exposed to risk- and uncertainty-oriented expressions (negative framing). Participants were asked to respond to the question “Should the company enter the market under these conditions?” with a simple “yes” or “no” and provide a brief justification for their decision.
The quantitative findings revealed no statistically significant difference between the positively and negatively framed groups (χ² ≈ 0.045, p > .05). However, content analysis of open-ended responses showed that the underlying arguments were shaped in a frame-sensitive manner. While the positive framing group focused on opportunity-oriented reasoning, the negative framing group emphasized risk avoidance themes. These results are consistent with Tversky and Kahneman’s (1981) prospect theory and Loewenstein’s (2001) risk-as-feelings hypothesis. Furthermore, the leadership training appears to have mitigated the framing effect. The study highlights the impact of cognitive awareness and presentation style on managerial decisions and provides important evidence suggesting that such cognitive biases can be reduced through training.
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References
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52. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211(4481), 453–458. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7455683
53. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1986). Rational choice and the framing of decisions. Journal of Business, 59(4), S251–S278. https://doi.org/10.1086/296365
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2. Diacon, S. R., & Hasseldine, J. (2007). Framing effects and risk perception: The effect of prior performance presentation on investment fund choice. Journal of Economic Psychology, 28(1), 31–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2006.01.002
3. Diacon, S., & Hasseldine, J. (2007). Framing effects and risk perception: The effect of prior performance presentation format on investment fund choice. Journal of Economic Psychology, 28(1), 31–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2006.01.003
4. Druckman, J. N. (2001). The implications of framing effects for citizen competence. Political Behavior, 23(3), 225–256. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015006907312
5. Fan, X. (2017). Decision-making and the framing effect in a foreign and native language. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 744. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00744
6. Fan, Y. (2017). The framing effect, cognitive style and financial decision making: A study on Chinese individual investors. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 854. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00854
7. Gong, J., Zhang, Y., Yang, Z., Huang, Y., Feng, J., & Zhang, W. (2013). The framing effect in medical decision-making: A review of the literature. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 18(6), 645–653. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2013.766352
8. Gong, Y., Zhang, L., & Sun, X. (2013). The framing effect in medical decision making: A review. Chinese Medical Journal, 126(10), 1968–1971.
9. Gong, Y., Zhang, L., & Sun, X. (2013). The framing effect in medical decision making: A review. Chinese Medical Journal, 126(10), 1968–1971.
10. Gonzalez, C., Ben-Asher, N., Martin, J. M., & Dutt, V. (2005). A cognitive model of dynamic decision making in real-time. Dynamic Decision Making Laboratory Technical Report. Carnegie Mellon University.
11. Gonzalez, C., Dana, J., & Koshino, H. (2005). The framing effect and risky decisions: Examining cognitive functions with fMRI. Journal of Economic Psychology, 26(1), 1–20.
12. Gonzalez, C., Dana, J., & Koshino, H. (2005). The framing effect and risky decisions: Examining cognitive functions with fMRI. Journal of Economic Psychology, 26(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2003.10.002
13. Hsee, C. K., & Li, N. (2022). A framing effect in the judgment of discrimination. Psychological Science, 33(6), 879–892. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976221094201
14. Hsee, C. K., & Li, N. (2022). Judgment under framing and the illusion of understanding. Annual Review of Psychology, 73, 573–595. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-021521-051410
15. Hsee, C. K., & Li, X. (2022). A framing effect in the judgment of discrimination. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(47), e2205988119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2205988119
16. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
17. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263–291. https://doi.org/10.2307/1914185
18. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263–291. https://doi.org/10.2307/1914185
19. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211(4481), 453–458. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7455683
20. Kühberger, A. (1998). The influence of framing on risky decisions: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75(1), 23–55.
21. Levin, I. P., & Gaeth, G. J. (1988). How consumers are affected by the framing of attribute information before and after consuming the product. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(3), 374–378. https://doi.org/10.1086/209174
22. Levin, I. P., & Gaeth, G. J. (1988). How consumers are affected by the framing of attribute information before and after consuming the product. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(3), 374–378. https://doi.org/10.1086/209174
23. Levin, I. P., Schneider, S. L., & Gaeth, G. J. (1998). All frames are not created equal: A typology and critical analysis of framing effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 76(2), 149–188. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2804
24. Levin, I. P., Schneider, S. L., & Gaeth, G. J. (1998). All frames are not created equal: A typology and critical analysis of framing effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 76(2), 149–188. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2804
25. Levin, I. P., Schneider, S. L., & Gaeth, G. J. (1998). All frames are not created equal: A typology and critical analysis of framing effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 76(2), 149–188. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2804
26. Li, F., & Ling, Y. (2015). The impact of framing on online consumer behavior. Open Journal of Business and Management, 3, 95–100. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2015.31010
27. Li, X. Y., & Ling, W. Q. (2015). How framing effect impact on decision making on internet shopping. Open Journal of Business and Management, 3(1), 96–108. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2015.31010
28. Lincă, A. (2016). Cognitive control and the framing effect: The role of education and analytical thinking. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 217, 1134–1140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.02.131
29. Lincă, F. I. (2016). The relationship between the risk decision making and framing effect. Romanian Journal of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Hypnosis, 3(2), 16–23.
30. Lincă, F. I. (2016). The relationship between the risk decision making and framing effect. Romanian Journal of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Hypnosis, 3(2), 16–21.
31. Loewenstein, G., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267
32. Loewenstein, G., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.2.267
33. Malenka, D. J., Baron, J. A., Johansen, S., Wahrenberger, J. W., & Ross, J. M. (1993). The framing effect of relative and absolute risk. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 8(10), 543–548. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02599636
34. Maner, J. K., Richey, J. A., Cromer, K., Mallott, M., Lejuez, C. W., Joiner, T. E., & Schmidt, N. B. (2007). Dispositional anxiety and risk-avoidant decision-making. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(4), 665–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.08.016
35. Maner, J. K., Richey, J. A., Cromer, K., Mallott, M., Lejuez, C. W., Joiner, T. E., & Schmidt, N. B. (2007). Dispositional anxiety and risk-avoidant decision-making. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(4), 665–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.08.016
36. Milkman, K. L., Chugh, D., & Bazerman, M. H. (2009). How can decision making be improved? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(4), 379–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01142.x
37. Niehaus, G., & Shrider, D. (2014). Framing and the disposition effect: Evidence from mutual fund investor redemption behaviour. Quantitative Finance, 14(4), 683–697. https://doi.org/10.1080/14697688.2013.819114
38. Niehaus, G., & Shrider, D. G. (2014). Framing and the disposition effect: Evidence from mutual fund investor redemption behavior. Journal of Financial Markets, 18, 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.finmar.2013.07.001
39. Osmont, A., Cassotti, M., Agogué, M., Houdé, O., & Moutier, S. (2015). Does ambiguity aversion influence the framing effect during decision making? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(2), 572–577. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0688-0
40. Osmont, A., Rozenblit, L., & Leland, J. (2014). Ambiguity and framing effects in risky choice. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21(3), 800–807. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0688-0
41. Piñon, A., & Gambara, H. (2005). A meta-analytic review of framing effect: Risky, attribute and goal framing. Psicothema, 17(2), 325–331. http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=72717222
42. Piñon, A., & Gambara, H. (2005). A meta-analytic review of framing effect: Risky, attribute and goal framing. Psicothema, 17(2), 325–331.
43. Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002). The affect heuristic. Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment, 397–420.
44. Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002). The affect heuristic. In T. Gilovich, D. Griffin, & D. Kahneman (Eds.), Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment (pp. 397–420). Cambridge University Press.
45. Slovic, P., Finucane, M., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002). The affect heuristic. In T. Gilovich, D. Griffin, & D. Kahneman (Eds.), Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment (pp. 397–420). Cambridge University Press.
46. Smith, S. M., & Levin, I. P. (1996). Need for cognition and choice framing effects. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 9(4), 283–290.
47. Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2000). Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(5), 645–665.
48. Stark, E., Baldwin, A. S., Hertel, A. W., & Rothman, A. J. (2017). Understanding the framing effect: Do affective responses to decision options mediate the influence of frame on choice? Journal of Risk Research, 20(12), 1585–1597. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2016.1200654
49. Stark, E., Baldwin, A. S., Hertel, A. W., & Rothman, A. J. (2017). Understanding the framing effect: Do affective responses to decision options mediate the influence of frame on choice? Journal of Risk Research, 20(12), 1585–1597. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2016.1200654
50. Stark, L., Müller, T., & Vossen, R. (2017). Emotional framing effects on risk-taking behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2196. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02196
51. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211(4481), 453–458. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7455683
52. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211(4481), 453–458. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7455683
53. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1986). Rational choice and the framing of decisions. Journal of Business, 59(4), S251–S278. https://doi.org/10.1086/296365
54. Ventre, V., Sbardella, A., & Ferraris, A. (2023). Framing effects in multi-criteria decision making: An application to investment product preferences. Annals of Operations Research, 322, 259–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-022-05142-z
Published
2025-06-24
How to Cite
Aksoy, Y., & Sahinkoc, E. M. (2025). Framing the Decision: An Experimental Study on Managerial Judgements Post-Leadership Training. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 42, 439. Retrieved from https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/19674
Section
ESI Preprints
Copyright (c) 2025 Yasin Aksoy, Ender Mehmet Sahinkoc
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
