Sustainable Mobility and Accessibility for People with Disabilities: Emerging Trends, Policy Challenges, and Evolution in Motor Insurance
Keywords:
Automation, Ethical Issues, Insurance
Abstract
Smart mobility, understood as automation-assisted driving, has found new solutions for individuals with chronic progressive diseases (e.g., multiple sclerosis), who require driving support that meets their evolving needs. Furthermore, specific issues, such as gender smart mobility (which particularly regards the needs of the female population), have recently been highlighted. The challenge is to combine these new methods with essential insurance coverage which is sustainable in terms of pricing and limitations (deductibles, reimbursement policies, etc.). It is also necessary to rethink non-mandatory policies that provide fundamental support, such as roadside assistance and vehicle repair coverage. This paper, through legal analysis, focuses on analysing smart mobility techniques, addressing critical issues in emerging insurance coverage, and providing constructive legal proposals for policymakers, as well as for insurance production and distribution. The issues addressed are based on data collected and analyzed by others, to whom this essay refers.
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References
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3. Anderson M. Et Al. (2010). The US Experience with no fault automobile insurance: a retrospective. http://www.rand.org.
4. Annese, L. (2023). www.stradeeautostrade.it,
5. Ashton, K. (2009). That ‘Internet of Things’ Thing, in RFID Journal, vol.22, no.7, 2009, 97-114
6. Biard, A., Product Liability 2.0 How to make EU rules fit for consumers in the digital age, Bruxelles.
7. Boehmer-Christiansen, S. (1994).The precautionary principle in Germany–enabling government. Interpreting the Precautionary Principle 31 (1994): 38-39.
8. Bonab, A.B., Rudko, I., Bellini, F. (2021). A Review and a Proposal About Socio-economic Impacts of Artificial Intelligence. In: Dima A.M., D'Ascenzo F. (eds) Business Revolution in a Digital Era. Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics, Springer.
9. Borges, G. (2021). “AI Systems and Product Liability”, Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, ICAIL 2021 pp. 32-39;
10. Buckingham, W. (1961). Automation: Its Impact on Business and People, Harper & Brothers, New York.
11. Cima, G. (2024). L’epoca della vulnerabilità. Come la psicologia ha invaso le nostre vite, Piano B,.
12. Commission Staff Working Document Executive Summary of the Evaluation of the White Paper Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area - Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system {SWD (2020) 410 final}.
13. Cerini, D. (2018). “Dal decreto smart roads in avanti: ridisegnare responsabilità e soluzioni assicurative”. Danno e responsabilità, p. 401 et seq.
14. Čerka, P., Grigienė, J., & Sirbikytė, G. (2015). “Liability for damages caused by artificial intelligence”, Computer Law & Security Review, 31, 3 pp. 376-389;
15. Chan Ching-Yao (2017). Advancements, prospects, and impacts of automated driving systems, IJTST, 208-216
16. Chen, L., Mislove, A., Wilson, C. (2015). Peeking beneath the hood of Uber. IMC 2015.
17. Chopra, S. & White, L.F. (2011). A Legal Theory for Autonomous Artificial Agents (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
18. Clifford Law Offices (2021). The Dangers of Driverless Cars, in National Law Review, 5 May 2021.
19. Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe (CoE) (2020). Recommendation on the human rights impacts of algorithmic systems. Brussels.
20. Dafoe, A., Evans, O., Grace, K., Salvatier, J., & Zhang, B. (2017). When will AI exceed human performance? Evidence from AI experts. J. Artif. Intell. Res. 62, pp. 729–754.
21. Demmel, S., Gruyer, D., Burkhardt, J.-M., Glaser, S., Larue, G., Orfila, O., & Rakotonirainy, A. (2019). Global risk assessment in an autonomous driving context: Impact on both the car and the driver, IFAC-PapersOnLine, Volume 51, Issue 34, pp. 390-395.
22. Decree No. 62 of 3 May 2024 in G.U. (Official Gazette), General Series, 14 May 2024 no. 111
23. Diciotti, E. (2018). La vulnerabilità nelle sentenze della Corte europea dei diritti dell'uomo,13-34,.
24. Ethik-Kommission Automatisiertes und Vernetztes Fahren, Bericht (2017) https://www.bmvi.de.
25. Fineman, M. (2004). The autonomy myth. A theory of dependency, in The New Press, New York, ID., The vulnerable subject: Anchoring equality in the human condition, in Yale Journal of Law & Feminism, 20, 1-2, 2008.
26. Finger, M., Bert, N., & Kupfer, D. (2015) .What role for digitisation to achieve an intermodal level playing field? in Regulation Observer, FSR.
27. Fluet, C. (2002). “Liability Insurance and Moral Hazard under the Strict Liability and Negligence”, Revue D'économie Politique, 112, 6, pp. 845-61.
28. Following the entry into force in March 2018 of the European regulatory obligation related to eCall, (Regulation (EU) 2015/ 758 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2015, in OJEU, L 123/77)
29. Garcia, C. A., Il diritto dei deboli at www.laleggepertutti.it.
30. Gallage, A. S. (2020). Updating The EU Product Liability Directive For The Digital Era. Droit & Technology, 24 February 2020.
31. Gless, S., Seelmann, K. (eds.) (2016). Intelligente Agenten und das Recht, Baden-Baden: Nomos.
32. Gnambs, T. & Appel, M. (2019). Are robots becoming unpopular? Changes in attitudes towards autonomous robotic systems in Europe. Computers in Human Behavior, 2019, pp. 53-61.
33. Greger, R. (2018). Haftungsfragen beim automatisierten Fahren. Zum Arbeitskreis II des Verkehrsgerichtstags, 31 Neue Zeitschrift fuer Verkehrsrecht, pp. 1-5.
34. Griffo, G. (2012). Le ragioni della Convenzione ONU sui diritti delle persone con disabilità delle Nazioni Unite, in OSIO O., BRAIBANTI P., Il diritto ai diritti. Riflessioni e approfondimenti a partire dalla Convenzione ONU sui diritti delle persone con disabilità, Milano, FrancoAngeli, pp.39-45.
35. Hall, M. I. (2012). Mental capacity in the (civil) law: Capacity, autonomy and vulnerability, in McGill Law Journal, 58, 61-94.
36. Heikkilä, S. (2014). Mobility as a Service - A Proposal for Action for the Public Administration, Case Helsinki, Master's Thesis, Aalto University,.
37. Heymann, L. A. (2010). Reading the Product: Warnings, Disclaimers, and Literary Theory (June 3, 2010), Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities, Vol. 22, pp. 393-415, 2010, William & Mary Law School Research Paper No. 09-50.
38. Hubbard, (2015). Sophisticated Robots: Balancing Liability, Regulation, and Innovation, 66 Florida Law Review, p, 1803.
39. ISTAT (Italian National Institute of Statistics) Report (2019).
40. Independent High-Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence set up by The European Commission (2019). Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI, Brussels.
41. JCER (1955). ‘Hearings on automation and technological change’, in Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization of the Joint Committee on the Economic Report, US Congress October 1955, pp. 14–28.
42. Kaelbling, L. P., Littman, M. L., & Moore, A. W. (1996). Reinforcement Learning: A Survey, Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 4, pp. 237–285.
43. Kim, P. T. (2017). Auditing algorithms for discrimination, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 166, 189
44. Kroll, J. A., Barocas, S., Felten, E. W., Reidenberg, J. R., Robinson, D. G., Yu, H. (2016). Accountable algorithms. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, p. 633.
45. Landini, S. (2020). Ethical Issues, Cybersecurity and Automated Vehicles, InsurTech: A Legal and Regulatory View, Noussia and Marano (eds), Springer, pp. 291-312.
46. Landini, S. (2020). “The Insurance Perspective on Prevention and Compensation Issues Relating to Damage Caused by Machines”, The Italian Law Journal p. 159.
47. Lenze, S. (2005). German product liability law: between European Directives, American Restatements and common sense, in D. Fairgrieve (ed.), Product liability in Comparative Perspective, p. 105.
48. Lütge, C. (2017). The German Ethics Code for Automated and Connected Driving, Philosophy & Technology, p. 9.
49. Law No. 104 of 5 February 1992, in G.U., General Series Ordinary Supplement no. 30, 17 February 1992 no. 39, Framework law for assistance, social integration and the rights of disabled persons.
50. Law No. 227 of 22 December 2021 in G.U., General Series, 30 December 2021 no.309.
51. Regulation (EU) 2019/2144 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2019 concerning type-approval requirements for motor vehicles and their trailers, and for systems, components and separate technical units intended for such vehicles, with regard to their general safety and the protection of vehicle occupants and other vulnerable road users, in OJEU, L 325/1.
52. Marano, P. (2021). Management of Distribution Risks and Digital Transformation of Insurance Distribution - A Regulatory Gap in the IDD. Risks 9, p. 143 ff.
53. Miller, T. (2019). Explanation in Artificial Intelligence: Insights from the Social Sciences. Artificial Intelligence, 1-38.
54. Mittelstadt, B., Russell, C., & Wachter, S. (2019). Explaining Explanations in AI. In Proceedings of the Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAT* ’19), 2019, New York, NY: US.
55. Muñoz Paredes, M.L. (2024). Seguros embebidos (embedded insurance), in Digitalización y Seguro, María Luisa Muñoz Paredes (dir.)-Covadonga Díaz Llanova (coord.), Comares Accesso Abierto, pp.51-76.
56. Nazzaro, A.C. (2018). “Macchine intelligenti (smart cars): assicurazione e tutela della privacy”, Diritto del mercato assicurativo e finanziario, p. 77 ff.
57. Nikitas, A. (2015). Automated Cars: A Critical Review of the Potential Advantages and Disadvantages of Driverless Technologies. In: First International Workshop on Smart Urban Mobility, 26-27 November 2015.
58. Nof, SY (2009). Automation: what it means to us around the world. In: Nof SY (ed) Springer handbook of automation. Springer, Berlin, pp. 13–52.
59. Peppet, S.R. (2014). Regulating the Internet of Things: First Steps Toward Managing Discrimination, Privacy, Security, and Consent, in Texas Law Review, vol. 83, 95, 84 ff., esp. 98.
60. Pandian, B. J., Noel, M. M. (2018-09-01). Control of a bioreactor using a new partially supervised reinforcement learning algorithm, Journal of Process Control. 69: 16–29
61. Pape, B. (2012). Warnings and Product Liability – Lessons learned from Cognitive Psychology and Ergonomics. p. 257.
62. Parasuraman, R., Sheridan, T. B., & Wickens, C. D. (2000). A model for types and levels of human interaction with automation, IEEE Transactions on Systems Man and Cybernetics - Part A Systems and Humans 30(3):286-97.
63. Pongelli, G. (2020). “Autonomous vehicles and legal issues on civil liability and motor insurance”, Diritto del mercato assicurativo e finanziario, p. 83 ff.
64. Rawls, J. (1982). A Theory of Justice, Feltrinelli.
65. Rizzuti, M. (2018). I veicoli automatici, problemi e prospettive. Diritto del mercato assicurativo e finanziario. p. 215
66. Recalcati, M. (2010). L'uomo senza inconscio. Figure della nuova clinica psicanalitica, Raffaello Cortina Editore,
67. Santoro, E. (2021). Persone, ordine, diritti e libertà. L'inadeguatezza delle teorie normative per il dibattito sui diritti delle persone con disabilità. Materiali per una storia della cultura giuridica” , Il Mulino, fasc. II, 2 dicembre , pp.313-335.
68. Sandvig, C., Hamilton, K., Karahalios, K., & Langbort, C. (2014). Auditing algorithms: research methods for detecting discrimination on Internet platforms, 64th Annual Meeting of the International Communication Association, May 22.
69. Scagliarini, S. (ed.), (2019). Smart roads’ and “driverless cars”: tra diritto, tecnologie, etica pubblica, Giappichelli, Torino.
70. Schreurs, M. A. & Steuwer, S. D. (2015). Autonomous Driving - Political, Legal, Social, and Sustainability Dimensions, in Maurer M., Gerdes J., Lenz B., Winner H. (eds.) Autonomes Fahren. Springer Vieweg, Berlin, Heidelberg
71. Stanghellini, G., (1997). Antropologia della vulnerabilità, Feltrinelli.
72. Sanità informazione https://www.sanitainformazione.it.
73. Sigma-Swiss re. (2014). Digital distribution in insurance: a quiet revolution. Vol. 2. p. 1-37.
74. Simon, H.A. (1979). Models of thought. Yale University Press, New Haven, p. 10.
75. Spiecker gen & Döhmann, I. (2012). Rechtliche Begleitung der Technikentwicklung im Bereich moderner Infrastrukturen und Informationstechnologien. In: Hill, H., Schliesky, U. (eds.),Die Vermessung des virtuellen Raums.
76. Spindler, G. (2019). User Liability and Strict Liability in the Internet of Things and for Robots. In: Lohsse, S., Schulze, R., Staudenmeyer, D. (eds.), Liability for Artificial Intelligence and the Internet of Things. Nomos, Baden-Baden.
77. Stoeckli, E., Dremel, C., & Uebernickel, F. (2016). Exploring characteristics and transformational capabilities of InsurTech innovations to understand insurance value creation in a digital world, p. 287 ff.
78. Surden, H. & Williams, M. A. (2016). Technological opacity, predictability, and self-driving cars, Cardozo Law Review, 2016, p. 121.
79. Taschner, H. (2005). Product liability: basic problems in a comparative law perspective. in D. Fairgrieve (ed.). Product liability in comparative perspective. p. 159.
80. UN Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006).
81. Van Otterlo, M. & Wiering, M. (2012). Reinforcement learning and Markov decision processes. Reinforcement Learning. Adaptation, Learning, and Optimization, 12, pp. 3–42.
82. Verheyen, T. (2018). Full Harmonization, Consumer Protection and Products Liability: a fresh reading of the case law of the ECJ, European Review of Private Law. pp. 119–140.
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Published
2025-10-17
How to Cite
Landini, S., & Viciani, S. (2025). Sustainable Mobility and Accessibility for People with Disabilities: Emerging Trends, Policy Challenges, and Evolution in Motor Insurance. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 21(42), 76. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2025.v21n42p76
Section
Special Editions
Copyright (c) 2025 Sara Landini, Simona Viciani
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
