Discrimination Experienced by ‘Third-Country National’ Women Working in Malta
Keywords:
EU, migration, gender, labour studies, sexual harassment
Abstract
‘Third-country national’ (TCN) women in the EU tend to experience discrimination both as women and as migrants, in the workplace and in the ‘receiving’ society. This article focuses on a recurring cluster of issues that emerged around the theme of discrimination, over the course of 19 interviews with ‘third-country national’ women from South Asian countries working in Malta. More specifically, the study explores situatedness and lived experience through an intersectional feminist approach, taking into account the individual socioeconomic conditions as well as aspects such as gender, nationality, religion, culture, educational level, and the occupation of the informants. The data was analysed using thematic analysis and led to the emergence of four key themes relating to discrimination, which proved to be interlinked: the relationship between intersecting factors; everyday discrimination; discriminatory procedures at the local and EU level; and sexual harassment. We found that workplace discrimination and broader social discriminatory practices often co-occur and are mutually reinforcing, while having an effect on the individual’s general quality of life and personal well-being. Such discrimination also interlinks with practices, power structures, and perceptions at transnational, EU, national, organisational, and local social levels.
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References
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2. Agius, S., Borg, M. G., Cachia, M., Cauchi, I., del Buono, C., Zammit, R., & Fenech, G. (2024). Beyond GDP II: Third country nationals in Malta: Sharing in our economic future or serving labour market interests? Justice and Peace Commission.
3. Anastasiadou, A., Kim, J., Sanlitürk, A. E., de Valk, H., & Zagheni, E. (2023). Sex- and gender-based differences in the migration process: A systematic literature review. MPIDR Working Paper WP 2023-039. Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research. https://doi.org/10.4054/MPIDR-WP-2023-039
4. Arena, J. (2023, December 27). Skills card for foreign workers postponed until March. The Times of Malta.
5. Baldacchino, G. (2012). Come visit, but don’t overstay: Critiquing a welcoming society. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 6(2), 145–153. https://doi.org/10.1108/17506181211233072
6. Baldacchino, G., & Debono, M. (2021). Editorial: Rationed bread, and such: The transformation of Malta: 1960-2020. In M. Debono & G. Baldacchino (Eds.), Working life and the transformation of Malta 1960-2020 (pp. 11-24). Malta University Press.
7. Bastia, T. (2014). Intersectionality, migration and development. Progress in Development Studies, 14(3), 237-248. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464993414521330
8. Bastia, T., & Piper, N. (2019). Women migrants in the global economy: A global overview (and regional perspectives). Gender & Development, 27(1), 15-30. doi:10.1080/13552074.2019.1570734.
9. bBrave. (2023). Research study on bullying and ostracism at the workplace in Malta - Final report. bBrave.
10. Beduschi, A. (2015). An empty shell? The protection of social rights of third-country workers in the EU after the single permit directive. European Journal of Migration and Law, 17(2-3), 210-238. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718166-12342078
11. Bélanger, D., & Rahman, M. (2013). Migrating against all the odds: International labour migration of Bangladeshi women. Current Sociology, 61(3), 356–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392113484453
12. Benedí Lahuerta, S. (2009). Race equality and TCNs, or How to fight discrimination with a discriminatory law. European Law Journal, 15(6), 738-756. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0386.2009.00488.x
13. Bonello, K., & Wånggren, L. (2023). Working conditions in a marketised university system: Generation precarity. Palgrave Macmillan.
14. Bonello, K., Borg, A., Debono, Manwel, Fiorini, Luke A. (2025). Transnational care networks of ‘third country national’ women working in Malta, Discover Global Society, 3(40), https://doi.org/10.1007/s44282-025-00174-9
15. Borg, A. (2019). Equality, diversity and inclusion. In G. Baldacchino, V. Cassar, & J. Azzopardi (Eds.), Malta and its human resources: Management and development perspectives (pp. 119-140). Malta University Press.
16. Borg, N. (2024, November 27). Women are partly to blame if raped while drunk, a fifth of Maltese say. The Times of Malta.
17. Boucher, A. K. (2025). Migrant sexual precarity through the lens of workplace litigation. Gender, Work & Organization, 32(1), 458-472. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.13160
18. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
19. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(4), 589–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2019.1628806
20. Bruce, A., Beuthin, R., Sheilds, L., Molzahn, A., & Schick-Makaroff, K. (2016). Narrative research evolving: Evolving through narrative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406916659292
21. Butler, J. (2004). Precarious life: The powers of mourning and violence. Verso.
22. Cachia, M. (2024). The “Ejja Ejja” culture: An analysis of socio-economic, political and legal factors which impact the health and safety of workers in the construction industry. Justice and Peace Commission.
23. Calleja, C., Giordmania, J., Camilleri, C., Sonne, K. (2023). Understanding hate speech and derogatory language against migrants and ethnic minorities in Malta: A qualitative analysis of social media comments and lived experiences. University of Malta.
24. Carabott, S. (2024, July 26). “TCNs refused work permits as cab, food courier markets saturated”: government. The Times of Malta.
25. Cassar, J. (2023, February 20). Coming here as a third country national? Just don’t bother. Malta Today.
26. Cauchi, A. (2018). Labour immigration of third-country nationals to Malta: A critical appraisal of the current regulatory framework [LL.D. dissertation, University of Malta].
27. Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241-1299. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229039
28. Cummings, J. (2024, August 6). “No Pakis…”: Estate agent accidentally publishes internal ‘restriction’. The Times of Malta.
29. Cutajar, J., & Vassallo R. (2024). “You kind of expect it – it’s not necessarily ok, but at the same time I've gotten used to it”. Tackling sexual harassment in higher educational institutions. Postcolonial Directions in Education, 13(1), 98-141.
30. Debono, M. (2021). Migrants and the challenge of decent work in Malta. e-Revista Internacional de la Protección Social, VI(2), 272-293. http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/e-RIPS.2021.i02.12.
31. Debono, M., & Vassallo, M. T. (2020). Predictors of employment outcomes among Filipino workers in Malta. Xjenza Online, 8, 16–31. DOI: 10.7423/XJENZA.2020.1.02
32. Ellul, D. (2023a, January 13). Asians coming to Malta for work are waiting more than a year for a visa decision. The Times of Malta.
33. Ellul, D. (2023b, August 10). Fired from job while abroad, unable to return to Malta. The Times of Malta.
34. Erel, U. & Reynolds, T. (2018). Introduction: Migrant mothers challenging racialized citizenship. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 41(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1334939
35. EU Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2014). Violence against Women: An EU wide survey: Main results.
36. European Commission. (2024). Flash Eurobarometer 544. Gender stereotypes - Violence against women. Eurobarometer Report, February.
37. European Economic and Social Committee (EESC). (2015). Inclusion of Migrant Women in the Labour Market. EESC Opinion. European Commission.
38. European Migration Network (EMN). (2017). Family Reunification of Third-Country Nationals in the EU plus Norway: National Report. EMN.
39. European Parliament and Council. (2011). Directive 2011/98/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on a single application procedure for a single permit for third-country nationals to reside and work in the territory of a Member State and on a common set of rights for third-country workers legally residing in a Member State. Official Journal of the European Union. EUR-Lex https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2011/98/oj/eng
40. European Parliament and Council. (2024). Directive (EU) 2024/1233 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 April 2024 on a single permit for third-country nationals to reside and work in the territory of the Member States and on a common set of rights for third-country workers (recast). Official Journal of the European Union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1233/oj/eng
41. Farrugia, J. (2023, October 22). Addressing HR challenges of foreign workers in Malta. The Times of Malta.
42. Fiorini, L. A. (2024). Remote workers’ reasons for changed levels of absenteeism, presenteeism and working outside agreed hours during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sage Open, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241240636
43. Hatton, E. (2020). Coerced: Work under threat of punishment. University of California Press.
44. Hennebry, J., Grass, W., & Mclaughlin, J. (2017). Research paper: Women migrant workers’ journey through the margins: Labour, migration and trafficking. UN Women and EU.
45. Huq, S., & Mortada, S. S. (2020, October 19). To tackle sexual violence in Bangladesh the culture of victim blaming must end. Guardian.
46. Identità Malta. (2023). Single Permit. Retrieved September 10, 2023, from https://www.identitymalta.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Single-Permit.pdf
47. Identità Malta. (2024a). Expatriates Unit. Retrieved October 10, 2024, from https://identita.gov.mt/expatriates-unit-change-of-designation-or-employer-change-of-employer/
48. Identità Malta. (2024b). Non-EU Nationals/Non-Employment Permits/Family Member/Family Members Policy: Policy on family members of third-country nationals who do not qualify for family reunification by means of the Family Reunification Regulations S.L. 217.06. 2021. https://identita.gov.mt/expatriates-unit-non-employment-permits-family-members-policy/
49. Identità Malta. (2025). Expatriates Unit: Highly Qualified Individuals. Retrieved January 10, 2025, from https://identita.gov.mt/expatriates-unit-employment-related-permits-highly-qualified-individuals/
50. Jobsplus. (2023). Labour Market Information. Retrieved October 10, 2023, from https://jobsplus.gov.mt/resources/publication-statistics-mt-mt-en-gb/labour-market-information/foreigners-data
51. Joppke, C. (2014). European immigrant integration after multiculturalism. In G. Battistella (Ed.), Global and Asian Perspectives on International Migration (pp. 77-99). Springer & IOM.
52. Kassam, A. (2024, October 24). Muslims in Europe experiencing “worrying surge” in racism, survey finds. Guardian.
53. Kelan, E. K. (2009). Gender fatigue: The ideological dilemma of gender neutrality and discrimination in organizations. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences 26(3), 197-210. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.106
54. Kelly, L., Burton, S., & Regan, L. (1994). Researching women’s lives or studying women’s oppression? Reflections on what constitutes feminist research. In M. Maynard & J. Purvis (Eds.), Researching women’s lives from a feminist perspective (pp. 27-48). Taylor & Francis.
55. Kofman, E. (2012). Gender and skilled migration in Europe. Cuadernos de Relaciones Laborales, 30(1), 63–89.
56. Mahler, S. J., & Pessar, P. (2001). Gendered geographies of power: Analyzing gender across transnational spaces. Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power, 7(4), 441– 459. https://doi.org/10.1080/1070289X.2001.9962675
57. Martin, I. (2017, November 18). New deals to import non-EU foreign workers to Malta. Times of Malta.
58. Nash, J. C. (2008). Re-thinking intersectionality. Feminist Review, 89(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1057/fr.2008.4
59. Orav, A. (2023). Migrant women and the EU labour market: Overcoming double discrimination. EU Parliamentary Research Service. Briefing. EU Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/747905/EPRS_BRI(2023)747905_EN.pdf
60. Pisani, M. (2022). “Race” to the bottom?: Critical reflections on race relations in Malta over the past 20 years. Journal of Mediterranean Studies, 31(2), 135−154. https://doi.org/10.1353/jms.2022.a912066
61. Rajiva, M. (2013). “Better lives”: The transgenerational positioning of social mobility in the South Asian Canadian diaspora. Women's Studies International Forum, 36, 16-26.
62. Riso, S., & Eurofound (2024, October 1). After #MeToo: Changes in sexual harassment policy at work. Eurofound.
63. Sangare, A. (2019). “I’m integrated, but not in a Maltese way”: Motherhood, migration and belonging in Malta. [Master’s dissertation, University of Malta].
64. Shahid, R., Sarkar, K., & Khan, A. (2021, January 26). Understanding ‘rape culture’ in Bangladesh, India, & Pakistan. Atlantic Council, South Asia Center.
65. Standing, G. (2011). The precariat: The new dangerous class. Bloomsbury Academic.
66. Suban, R., & Zammit, D. E. (2019). Promoting the integration of third-country nationals through the labour market: Combating discrimination in employment: The case of third-country nationals in Malta. Mediterranean Human Rights Review, 1, 98-117.
67. Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). (2012). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/treaty/tfeu_2012/oj/eng
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Published
2025-10-31
How to Cite
Bonello, K., Borg, A., Debono, M., & Fiorini, L. A. (2025). Discrimination Experienced by ‘Third-Country National’ Women Working in Malta. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 21(29), 34. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2025.v21n29p34
Section
ESJ Humanities
Copyright (c) 2025 Krista Bonello, Anna Borg, Manwel Debono, Luke A. Fiorini
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
