Educational Language Polices in Nigeria and Zimbabwe: The Role of Educational Inclusion
Keywords:
Educational language policy, language of instruction, inclusive education, Nigeria, Zimbabwe
Abstract
Educational language policies in African countries are controversial as their colonial legacies continue to undervalue indigenous African languages (Sibomana, 2015). These policies, such as the Education Act (1987) in Zimbabwe, influences the future of African children as they do not always support linguistic inclusion, which in turn may impact the social, economic and national development of a country. While this context is applicable to most African countries, few comparative studies to date have been undertaken to explore this subject in more depth. To address this gap, this study is the first to examine the need for educational inclusion in the language polices of Nigeria and Zimbabwe, two of the continent’s largest economies, as both have a two-language system (Anukaenyi, 2019) and English is still hegemonic (Chivhanga and Chimhenga, 2013). The study is based on the premise that detrimental medium of instruction policies at the national level can damage learning, access and inclusion (Cele, 2021). The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses) guided the critical review of 80 publications in the study which spanned more than two decades (2000-2024). Findings suggest that the policies have encouraged the marginalisation of indigenous languages and harmed students, as their learning continues to take place in an unfamiliar language. Furthermore, the language policies in both countries have also promoted inequality as they have not been implemented in private schools. The study recommends the need for more comparative research on the importance of inclusive teaching and learning of English alongside learners’ indigenous languages to improve effective and equitable policy implementation
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References
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3. Alaku, M, Okpala, N., and Sule, B. (2023). Integrating mother tongue with English for successful teaching and learning in secondary schools in Nigeria. International Journal of Library Science & Education Research, 29(8), 1-12.
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6. Anyanwu, E. (2022). Problems and prospects of teaching the English language in the era of Digitalization. IDOSR Journal of Communication and English, 7(1), 1-7.
7. Anukaenyi, B. (2019, March 17-19). Language diversity and language policy in education in Nigeria: A critical review [Paper Presentation] International Conference on Teaching, Learning and Education Berlin, Germany. https://www.dpublication.com\
8. Asuru, V., and Njigwum, A. (2020). Predicting students’ performance in SSCE English language from their performance JSCE English language, Nigerian Universities Journal of Education, 1(1), 28-38.
9. Awuor, E. (2019). Language policy in education: The practicality of its implementation and the way forward. Journal of Language, Technology and Entrepreneurship in Africa, 10(1).
10. Bendor-Samuel, J. (2025). Bantu Languages. Encyclopaedia Britannica. https:/www/Britannica.com
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12. Chiatoh, B. (2005). Language education and development. ADEA Newsletter, 17(2), 3-7.
13. Chivhanga, E., and Chimhenga, M. (2013). Language planning in Zimbabwe: The use of indigenous languages (Shona) as a medium of instruction in primary schools. Journal Of Humanities and Social Science 12(5, 58-68.
14. Chivhanga, E., and Sylod, C. (2014). Student teachers’ attitude towards the use of indigenous languages as medium of instruction in the teaching of science subjects in primary schools of Zimbabwe. Journal of Research & Method in Education, 4(4), 37-43.
15. Eru, J., Ogi, M., and Ikpe, J. (2019). Educational policy implementation in Nigeria and challenges strategies. BSUJEM, 1(2), 261-266.
16. Euromonitor (2015). English quantitative indicators: Cameroon, Nigeria, Rwanda, Bangladesh, Pakistan. London: British Council.
17. Fadokun, J. (2023). Rethinking the role of language in education. International Journal of Education, Library and Information Communication Technology, 2(1),17-23.
18. Federal Government of Nigeria (1981). National Policy on Education (Revised). Lagos: Federal Government Printer.
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21. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2022). National Language Policy. Lagos: NERDC.
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23. Fettes, M., and Karamouzian , M. (2018). Inclusion in education: Challenges for linguistic policy and research. In M. Siner et al. (Eds.) Language Policy and Language Acquisition Planning. Language Policy, 15, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75963-0_13.
24. Gudyanga, E., Wadesango, N., and Dzirikure, L. (2015). Parents’ and teachers’ perceptions on the use of language in early childhood development in Norton District. International Journal of Educational Science, 11(2), 177-186.
25. Hang’ombe, K., and Mumpande, I. (2020). Language situation and language policy in-education in Zimbabwe: A perspective towards Tonga learners. Multilingual Margins, 7(3), 84-98
26. Heugh, K. (2006). Language education policies in Africa. Encyclopaedia of Language & Linguistics, 6, 414–422.
27. Hungwe, K. (2007). Language policy in Zimbabwean education: Historical antecedents and contemporary issues. Compare, 37(2), 135–149.
28. Ibrahımov, E. (2023, 4-7 May). The main factors shaping the language policy [Paper Presentation]. 6th International Scientific Conference., Manchester. United Kingdom.
29. Ibrahim, J., and Gwandu, S.(2016). Language policy on education in Nigeria: Challenges of multilingual education and the future of English language. American Research Journal of English and Literature, 2, 1-10.
30. Iwuchukwu, M. (2021). Language Education in Nigeria: Contemporary issues and the way Forward. Cognizance Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 1, 1-20.
31. Jegede, O., Yusuf, O., and Aliyu, A. (2024). Inclusive education in the 21st Century: solving the language of instruction puzzle in Nigerian public primary schools.: A Festschrift in Honour of an Erudite Scholar, Rev. Dr. (Mrs) Oluwatoyin Abike Odeleye,147-157. Ibadan: College Press.
32. Kamwangamalu, N. (2013). Effects of policy on English medium instruction in Africa. World Englishes, 32(3). DOI: 10.111/weng.12034
33. Kadenge, M., and Nkomo, D. (2011) The politics of English language in Zimbabwe. Language Matters, 422, 248-263. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10228195.2011.581679
34. Kangira, J. (2017). Challenges of the implementation of language policies in Southern Africa: The way forward? Inkanyiso, Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 8(2), 68-73.
35. Kart, A., and Kart, M. (2021). Academic and social effects of inclusion on students without disabilities: A review of the literature. Educational Sciences,11(16), 1-13.
36. Khan, A. (2016). Policy implementation: Some aspects and issues. Journal of Community Positive Practices, XVI, 3, 3-12.
37. Macaro, E. (2018) English Medium Instruction: Content and Language in Policy and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
38. Manhanga, S. (2017). Results performance mismatch: Implications on English language assessment in Zimbabwe. Journal of Advance in Social Science and Humanities.3(6). DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15520/jassh306228
39. Marungudzi, A. (2009). English as a language of learning and teaching: Perspectives of Secondary school teachers in Masvingo District (Zimbabwe), [Master’s Thesis]. University of South Africa.
40. Mazuruse, M. (2018). Interrogating paradoxes in the multilingual provisions of the new 2013 Zimbabwean Constitution, The Namibian CPD Journal for Educators., 3 (1),8-93. https://doi.org/10.32642/ncpdje.vi.1292.
41. Mokibelo, E., Akinkurolere, S. and Mhindu, A. A review of indigenous languages situation in Languages-in-Education Policies in Botswana, Nigeria, and Zimbabwe: A comparative and critical approach. US-China Education Review, 14(11),738-754.
42. Mufanechiya, A., and Mufanechiya, T. (2010). Using mother tongue as a medium of Instruction in the teaching of mathematics in the Zimbabwean junior primary schools: Desirable or feasible? Journal of Asian Scientific Research, 1(4),194-203.
43. Ibrahim, H., Anka, M., and Yabo, N. (2017). English as a medium of instruction: Challenges to Nigerian primary schools. The Victorian Journal, 5(3), 63-72.
44. Mukorera, M. (2015). Exploring the influence of Zimbabwean Teachers’ and Learners’ Attitudes towards English Language use in primary classrooms. [EdD thesis], The Open University, Zimbabwe. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21954/ou.ro.0000f0009
45. Muzoora, M., Terry, D., and Asiimwe, A. (2014). The valorisation of African languages and policies in the African education systems: A Case of Uganda. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 2(1), 42-50. DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2014.020105.
46. Nhongo, R. (2013). A National Language Policy for Zimbabwe in the Twenty-first Century: Myth or Reality? Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 4(6),1208-1215.
47. Nhongo, R. and Tshotsho, P. (2020). The problematics of language in-education policies in post-independence in Zimbabwe. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 56(5),1-15.
48. Njoku, J. (2017). English language, the Nigerian education system and human development. UJAH Unizik Journal of Arts and Humanities Special Edition, 18(2), 211-226.
49. Nkwe, T. and Marungudzi, T. (2015). Teachers’ perspectives on the use of English as the medium of instruction in Zimbabwean secondary schools. Journal of African Languages, 35(1), 43-55. DOI: 10.1080/02572117.2015.1056463.
50. Nyoni, P., Ahmed, M., Philogene M. .and Khaing, T. (2023). Implementation of English as a medium of instruction policy in schools: A Systematic Review. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 11, 413-430.
51. Obiakor, T. (2024). Language of instruction policy in Nigeria: Assessing the Implementation and literacy achievement in a multilingual environment. International Journal of Educational Development, 109, 1-16.
52. Obiegbu, I. (2015). The English language and sustainable development in Nigeria. Open Journal of Political Science, 5(2), 82-86.
53. Obiego, and Eke, C. (2021). Challenges facing teaching and learning of Nigerian indigenous languages in the 21st century. The Colloqum -A Multi-disciplinary Thematic Policy Journal, 9(1), 243-250.
54. Ogunmodimu, M. (2015). Language policy in Nigeria: Problems, prospects and perspectives. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 5(9), 1-7.
55. Olagbegi-Adegbite, O. (2022). Language policy and early grade instruction in Nigeria: A comparative case study of policy awareness and implementation in doing comparative case studies, Francis, B and Lesly, B. (Eds). Routledge; Taylor and Francis Group.
56. Okeke, C. (2024, June 2).1 year after: FG yet to implement National Language Policy in schools. Daily Trust. https://dailytrust.com1yrafter
57. Okoye, C. (2023, January 9). Is our new educational policy a misguided idea? Vanguard Newspaper. https://www.vanguardngr.com
58. Opertti, R. (2017) Curriculum in Education 2030 Agenda: Latin America and the Caribbean Reflection no. 10 on Current and Critical Issues in Curriculum, Learning and Assessment. UNESCO International Bureau of Education.unesdoc.uneco.org
59. Opare-Kumi, J. (2024). English Medium Instruction from multilingual contexts: Empirical evidence from Ethiopia. International Journal of Educational Development, 105, 1-18..
60. Owojecho, F. (2020). Implementation challenges of National Language Policy in Nigeria: The roles of the Indigenous Languages. International Journal of Languages, 2(1); 270-279.
61. Ozoemena, J., Ngwoke, F., Nwokolo, B. (2021). Prospects of mother tongue as a medium of instruction in Nigerian primary level education. English Language Teaching, 14(4), 1-18.
62. Rose, H., Macaro, E., Sahan, K., Aizawa, I., Zhou, S., and Wei, M. 2021. Defining English Medium Instruction: Striving for comparative equivalence. Language Teaching. First View, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444821000483
63. Salau, A. (2018). Sunday, 23 September How Nigeria contributed to Zimbabwe’s Independence-Daily Trust E-PAPER.dailytrust.com
64. Shizha, E. (2008). Indigenous? What indigenous knowledge Beliefs and attitudes of rural Primary school teachers towards indigenous knowledge in the science curriculum in Zimbabwe. Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 37(01),80-90. DOI: 10.1017/S13260111000161224.
65. Shizha, E. (2010). Rethinking and Reconstituting Indigenous Knowledge and Voices in the Academy in Zimbabwe: A Decolonisation Process. In D. Kapoor &E. Shizha (Eds), Indigenous knowledge and learning in Asia/Pacific and Africa: Perspectives on Development, education and culture (pp.115-129). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
66. Shizha, E. (2012). Reclaiming and re-visioning indigenous voices: The case of the language of instruction in science education in Zimbabwean primary schools Literacy Information,1(1), 785-793.DOI: 20533/licej.2040.2589.2012.0116
67. Sibanda, C. (2020). Impact of linguistic complexity in English language texts in South Africa’s Primary school grade 3 to 4 transition. Issues in Educational, 30(2).
68. Simons, G., and Fening, C. (2018). Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version available at http://www.ethnologue.com.
69. Tom-Lawyer, O. (2011) English Language: A symbol of national integration in International democratization, good governance and education. Lagos State University. University Conference. 26th-30th July. Lagos: Lagos State University Press. 85-90.
70. Tsuarei M., and Sani, A. (2024). Indigenous languages as medium of instruction in Nigerian primary schools: Significance and implications. Tasambo Journal, 3(1),32-39.
71. UNESCO (2009). Policy guidelines on inclusion in education. UNESCO Digital Library.
72. UNESCO (2012). The millennium development goals report. UNESCO Digital Library.
73. UNESCO, (2015). UNESCO and sustainable development goals. UNESCO Digital Library
74. UNESCO. (2017). A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education. UNESCO Digital Library.
75. United Nations. (2023). United Nations Economic, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. Department of Economic and Social Affairs-Sustainable Development.
76. Umoren, M. (2019). Language planning and language policy in Nigeria: Implementation realities. International Journal of English Language, Literature and Translation Studies, 6 (2), 192-197.
77. Umunnakwe, N. (2017). Complementarity or conflict: The role of English in the Nigerian linguistic context. Everant, 7, 445-458.
78. Viriri, E. (2013). English as a medium of instruction in Zimbabwe: Inadequacies surrounding its use in rural secondary schools. Germany: Saarbrucken. Lambert Academic Publishing.
79. Viriri, E., and Ndimande-Hiongwa, N. (2023). African languages as media of assessment in the teaching indigenous languages in higher education: A paradigm shift. Journal for Language Teaching, 57(2), 1-20.
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Published
2026-05-10
How to Cite
Tom-Lawyer, O., & Thomas, M. (2026). Educational Language Polices in Nigeria and Zimbabwe: The Role of Educational Inclusion. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 53, 42. Retrieved from https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/20987
Section
ESI Preprints
Copyright (c) 2026 Oris Tom-Lawyer, Michael Thomas
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
