Indicators of Discriminatory Motive in Crimes of Sexual Violence against Women in Georgia
Keywords:
Rape, sexual violence, discriminatory motive, gender basis
Abstract
This article examines sexual violence as a discriminatory crime, highlighting its systemic and patriarchal foundations as a tool for sustaining power over women and perpetuating gender inequality. While international human rights and criminal law increasingly recognize that sexual violence is not merely an act of individual aggression but a manifestation of patriarchal power, the Georgian criminal justice system often fails to identify its discriminatory motives, and international legal practice on this issue is yet to be developed. Relying on international and regional human rights instruments, as well as feminist legal theory and scholarship, the article argues that sexual violence constitutes a crime motivated by gender-based discrimination, in which the discriminatory motive - though often indirect - is structurally embedded and comparable to the recognized motives in hate crimes. To identify such motives, the article critiques the prevailing reliance on overt bias indicators in hate crime analysis and underscores the necessity of employing contextual indicators for motive assessment, emphasizing that the presence of multiple potential motives does not diminish the discriminatory character of sexual violence. The article concludes with legal and policy recommendations aimed at strengthening the recognition of gender-discriminatory motives in sexual violence cases and advancing transformative, survivor-centered justice in Georgia.
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References
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2. Council of Europe, (2011). Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (Istanbul Convention). Council of Europe Treaty Series No. 210.
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13. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Case Nos. IT-96-23-T & IT-96-23/1-T, Judgment, 22 February 2001.
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15. Brownmiller, S., (1975). Against our will: Men, women and rape. New York: Simon & Schuster.
16. Dworkin, A., (1981). Pornography: Men possessing women. New York: Putnam.
17. Estrich, S., (1987). Real rape. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
18. Halley, J., (2008). Split decisions: How and why to take a break from feminism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
19. Kelly, L., (1988). Surviving sexual violence. Cambridge: Polity Press.
20. MacKinnon, C. A., (1989). Toward a feminist theory of the state. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
21. MacKinnon, C. A., (2006). Are women human? And other international dialogues. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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24. Haynes, A., & Schweppe, J., (2020). Should hate crime legislation include misogynistic crimes? In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Perspectives on hate: How it originates, develops, manifests, and spreads. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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27. Chiu, E. M., (2005). The challenge of motive in the criminal law. Buffalo Criminal Law Review, 8(2).
28. Crenshaw, K., (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6).
29. Da Silva, T., Woodhams, J., & Harkins, L., (2015). Multiple perpetrator rape: A critical review of existing explanatory theories. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.07.017
30. Dawson, M., (2025). Considering sex/gender-based violence as a form of hate: The invisibility of sex and gender. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, advance online publication, January 14, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380241311873
31. Dobash, R. E., & Dobash, R. P., (2004). Women’s violence to men in intimate relationships: Working on a puzzle. British Journal of Criminology, 44(3).
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33. Gesser, N., Eby, F. G., & Anderson, R. E., (2023). Motives for sex and sexual perpetration in college men: An exploratory study. Psychology Faculty Publications. https://scholarworks.uni.edu/psych_facpub/49
34. Goldscheid, J. (2018). Gender Violence and Human Rights in an Era of Backlash. William & Marry Journal of Women and the Law, 24 (3), 559-560. https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1479&context=wmjowl
35. Gegelia, T., (2021). The Rape Paradigm: Violent Stranger vs Warrior Victim. Law and World, 7(18), 58.
36. Gegelia, T. (2024). Rethinking the Boundaries of Sexual Violence for Criminal Law Reform. Law and World, 10(31), 201–202. https://doi.org/10.36475/10.3.15
37. Gelovani, N. (2022). Crime committed with a motive of intolerance on the grounds of discrimination in Georgian criminal law. Justice and Law, 2(74).
38. Gelovani, N. (2023). Indicators of crimes committed with a motive of intolerance on the grounds of discrimination. Justice and Law, 4(80).
39. Heise, L. L., (1998). Violence against women: An integrated, ecological framework. Violence Against Women, 4(3).
40. McGlynn, C., & Westmarland, N., (2019). Kaleidoscopic justice: Sexual violence and victim-survivors’ perceptions of justice. Social & Legal Studies, 28(2).
41. Mullins, C. W., & Wright, R., (2003). Gender, social networks, and residential burglary. Criminology, 41(3).
42. Navas, M. P., Maneiro, L., Cutrín, O., & Gómez Fraguela, X. A., (2021). Sexism, moral disengagement, and dark triad traits on perpetrators of sexual violence against women and community men. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 34(2), 107906322110516. https://doi.org/10.1177/10790632211051689
43. Pezzella, F. S., Fetzer, M. D., & Keller, T., (2019). The dark figure of hate crime underreporting. American Behavioral Scientist.
44. Sarkar, J., (2013). Mental health assessment of rape offenders. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(3).
45. Walters, M. A., & Tumath, J., (2014). Gender “hostility,” rape and the hate crime paradigm. The Modern Law Review, 77(4).
46. Dekanosidze, T., Chikhladze, N., & Kharatishvili, G. (2020). Administering Justice on Sexual Violence Crimes against Women in Georgia. Tbilisi: Public Defender of Georgia and Council of Europe.
47. Edgerton, K., Dekanosidze, T., Khatiashvili, G., Barbakadze, N., & Bichikashvili, L. (2021). Effectively Investigating, Prosecuting and Adjudicating Sexual Violence Cases: A Manual for Practitioners in Georgia, Tbilisi: Council of Europe; UN Women; Equality Now.
48. Sakartvelos Akhalgazrda Iuristta Asotsiatsia. (2024). Sakhelmtsipos reagireba genderulad motivirebul dzaladobaze sakartveloshi: kanonmdeblobisa da praktik’is analizi. Tbilisi.
49. World Health Organization, (2013). Responding to intimate partner violence and sexual violence against women: WHO clinical and policy guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization.
50. World Health Organization, (2021). Violence against women prevalence estimates, 2018: Global, regional and national prevalence estimates for intimate partner violence against women and global and regional prevalence estimates for non-partner sexual violence against women. Geneva: World Health Organization.
51. OSCE, (2009). Preventing and responding to hate crimes: A resource guide for NGOs in the OSCE region. Warsaw: OSCE. https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/8/a/39821.pdf es scoria
52. OSCE/ODIHR, (2014). Hate crime data-collection and monitoring mechanisms: A practical guide, Warsaw: OSCE/ODIHR.
53. OSCE/ODIHR, (2021). Gender-based hate crime (Factsheet). Warsaw: OSCE/ODIHR.
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55. OSCE/ODIHR & International Association of Prosecutors, (2014). Prosecuting hate crimes: A practical guide. Warsaw: OSCE/ODIHR.
56. UNIA, (n.d.). The difference between hate speech, hate crime and discrimination. Brussels: Interfederal Centre for Equal Opportunities. https://www.unia.be/en/difference-hate-speech-hate-crime-discrimination
57. Sommardal, J., (2025). ECHR Developments on Gender-Based Violence Part I: Secondary Victimisation, Discrimination, and Minors’ Consent. ECHR Blog, 9 June 2025. https://www.echrblog.com/2025/06/echr-developments-on-gender-based.html
58. U.S. Department of Justice, (2024). Learn about hate crimes. https://www.justice.gov/hatecrimes/learn-about-hate-crimes
2. Council of Europe, (2011). Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (Istanbul Convention). Council of Europe Treaty Series No. 210.
3. Criminal Code of Canada, (R.S.C., 1985, c. C-46). https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-46/section-718.2.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com
4. Criminal Code of the Kingdom of Spain (1995). https://hatecrime.osce.org/hate-crime-legislation-spain?utm_source=chatgpt.com
5. Englad and Wales, Criminal Justice Act (2003). https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/44/section/145/enacted?utm_source=chatgpt.com
6. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.
7. European Court of Human Rights, A and B v. Georgia, no. 73975/16, Judgment, 10 February 2022.
8. European Court of Human Rights, B.S. v. Spain, no. 47159/08, Judgment, 24 July 2012.
9. European Court of Human Rights, Gaidukevich v. Georgia, no. 38650/18, Judgment (Merits and Just Satisfaction), Fifth Section, 15 June 2023.
10. European Court of Human Rights, Identoba and Others v. Georgia, no. 73235/12, Judgment, 12 May 2015.
11. European Court of Human Rights, Nachova and Others v. Bulgaria [GC], nos. 43577/98 and 43579/98, Judgment, 6 July 2005.
12. European Court of Human Rights, Tkhelidze v. Georgia, no. 33056/17, Judgment (Merits and Just Satisfaction), 8 July 2021.
13. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Case Nos. IT-96-23-T & IT-96-23/1-T, Judgment, 22 February 2001.
14. Ashworth, A., & Horder, J., (2013). Principles of criminal law (7th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
15. Brownmiller, S., (1975). Against our will: Men, women and rape. New York: Simon & Schuster.
16. Dworkin, A., (1981). Pornography: Men possessing women. New York: Putnam.
17. Estrich, S., (1987). Real rape. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
18. Halley, J., (2008). Split decisions: How and why to take a break from feminism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
19. Kelly, L., (1988). Surviving sexual violence. Cambridge: Polity Press.
20. MacKinnon, C. A., (1989). Toward a feminist theory of the state. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
21. MacKinnon, C. A., (2006). Are women human? And other international dialogues. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
22. Stark, E., (2007). Coercive control: How men entrap women in personal life. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
23. Westmarland, N., & Hester, M., (2020). Perpetrators of domestic and sexual violence: Data, evidence and resource implications. Bristol: University of Bristol.
24. Haynes, A., & Schweppe, J., (2020). Should hate crime legislation include misogynistic crimes? In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Perspectives on hate: How it originates, develops, manifests, and spreads. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
25. Duggan, M., (2021). From femicide to gender-based hate crime: Misogyny as hate crime. In Studies in Law, Politics, and Society, Vol. 85. Bingley: Emerald Publishing.
26. Antmen, D. (2023). Explaining the justification of violence against women based on the system justification theory. Nesne, 11(29), 508-509. DOI: 10.7816/nesne-11-29-10.
27. Chiu, E. M., (2005). The challenge of motive in the criminal law. Buffalo Criminal Law Review, 8(2).
28. Crenshaw, K., (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6).
29. Da Silva, T., Woodhams, J., & Harkins, L., (2015). Multiple perpetrator rape: A critical review of existing explanatory theories. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.07.017
30. Dawson, M., (2025). Considering sex/gender-based violence as a form of hate: The invisibility of sex and gender. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, advance online publication, January 14, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380241311873
31. Dobash, R. E., & Dobash, R. P., (2004). Women’s violence to men in intimate relationships: Working on a puzzle. British Journal of Criminology, 44(3).
32. Erentzen, C., & Schuller, R., (2020). Exploring the dark figure of hate: Experiences with police bias and the under-reporting of hate crime. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 62(2).
33. Gesser, N., Eby, F. G., & Anderson, R. E., (2023). Motives for sex and sexual perpetration in college men: An exploratory study. Psychology Faculty Publications. https://scholarworks.uni.edu/psych_facpub/49
34. Goldscheid, J. (2018). Gender Violence and Human Rights in an Era of Backlash. William & Marry Journal of Women and the Law, 24 (3), 559-560. https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1479&context=wmjowl
35. Gegelia, T., (2021). The Rape Paradigm: Violent Stranger vs Warrior Victim. Law and World, 7(18), 58.
36. Gegelia, T. (2024). Rethinking the Boundaries of Sexual Violence for Criminal Law Reform. Law and World, 10(31), 201–202. https://doi.org/10.36475/10.3.15
37. Gelovani, N. (2022). Crime committed with a motive of intolerance on the grounds of discrimination in Georgian criminal law. Justice and Law, 2(74).
38. Gelovani, N. (2023). Indicators of crimes committed with a motive of intolerance on the grounds of discrimination. Justice and Law, 4(80).
39. Heise, L. L., (1998). Violence against women: An integrated, ecological framework. Violence Against Women, 4(3).
40. McGlynn, C., & Westmarland, N., (2019). Kaleidoscopic justice: Sexual violence and victim-survivors’ perceptions of justice. Social & Legal Studies, 28(2).
41. Mullins, C. W., & Wright, R., (2003). Gender, social networks, and residential burglary. Criminology, 41(3).
42. Navas, M. P., Maneiro, L., Cutrín, O., & Gómez Fraguela, X. A., (2021). Sexism, moral disengagement, and dark triad traits on perpetrators of sexual violence against women and community men. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 34(2), 107906322110516. https://doi.org/10.1177/10790632211051689
43. Pezzella, F. S., Fetzer, M. D., & Keller, T., (2019). The dark figure of hate crime underreporting. American Behavioral Scientist.
44. Sarkar, J., (2013). Mental health assessment of rape offenders. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(3).
45. Walters, M. A., & Tumath, J., (2014). Gender “hostility,” rape and the hate crime paradigm. The Modern Law Review, 77(4).
46. Dekanosidze, T., Chikhladze, N., & Kharatishvili, G. (2020). Administering Justice on Sexual Violence Crimes against Women in Georgia. Tbilisi: Public Defender of Georgia and Council of Europe.
47. Edgerton, K., Dekanosidze, T., Khatiashvili, G., Barbakadze, N., & Bichikashvili, L. (2021). Effectively Investigating, Prosecuting and Adjudicating Sexual Violence Cases: A Manual for Practitioners in Georgia, Tbilisi: Council of Europe; UN Women; Equality Now.
48. Sakartvelos Akhalgazrda Iuristta Asotsiatsia. (2024). Sakhelmtsipos reagireba genderulad motivirebul dzaladobaze sakartveloshi: kanonmdeblobisa da praktik’is analizi. Tbilisi.
49. World Health Organization, (2013). Responding to intimate partner violence and sexual violence against women: WHO clinical and policy guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization.
50. World Health Organization, (2021). Violence against women prevalence estimates, 2018: Global, regional and national prevalence estimates for intimate partner violence against women and global and regional prevalence estimates for non-partner sexual violence against women. Geneva: World Health Organization.
51. OSCE, (2009). Preventing and responding to hate crimes: A resource guide for NGOs in the OSCE region. Warsaw: OSCE. https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/8/a/39821.pdf es scoria
52. OSCE/ODIHR, (2014). Hate crime data-collection and monitoring mechanisms: A practical guide, Warsaw: OSCE/ODIHR.
53. OSCE/ODIHR, (2021). Gender-based hate crime (Factsheet). Warsaw: OSCE/ODIHR.
54. OSCE/ODIHR, (2022). Hate crime laws: A practical guide (2nd ed.). Warsaw: OSCE/ODIHR.
55. OSCE/ODIHR & International Association of Prosecutors, (2014). Prosecuting hate crimes: A practical guide. Warsaw: OSCE/ODIHR.
56. UNIA, (n.d.). The difference between hate speech, hate crime and discrimination. Brussels: Interfederal Centre for Equal Opportunities. https://www.unia.be/en/difference-hate-speech-hate-crime-discrimination
57. Sommardal, J., (2025). ECHR Developments on Gender-Based Violence Part I: Secondary Victimisation, Discrimination, and Minors’ Consent. ECHR Blog, 9 June 2025. https://www.echrblog.com/2025/06/echr-developments-on-gender-based.html
58. U.S. Department of Justice, (2024). Learn about hate crimes. https://www.justice.gov/hatecrimes/learn-about-hate-crimes
Published
2026-05-16
How to Cite
Dekanosidze, T. (2026). Indicators of Discriminatory Motive in Crimes of Sexual Violence against Women in Georgia. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 53, 557. Retrieved from https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/21018
Section
ESI Preprints
Copyright (c) 2026 Tamar Dekanosidze
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
