Rape as Gender-Based Violence and Discrimination Against Women: Analysis of German and Georgian Criminal Law Through the Lens of the International Anti-Discrimination Framework
Keywords:
Gender equality, Gender-based violence, discrimination against women, patriarchal system, sexual violence
Abstract
This article studies and examines the conceptualization of rape through the lens of gender equality, arguing that sexual violence must be understood as a form of discrimination against women. Against the backdrop of recent developments within the United Nations, particularly the renewed emphasis on women’s rights and gender equality in the work of the General Assembly and the Commission on the Status of Women (2026), the study situates its analysis within the broader human rights and anti-discrimination framework.
The article critically engages with legislative developments in Georgia, specifically the removal of the concept of “gender” from legal discourse and its replacement with the narrower notion of “equality between women and men,” which is based solely on biological sex. It argues that such a shift obscures the structural and gendered dimensions of sexual violence and undermines a comprehensive understanding of rape as a manifestation of inequality. Adopting a feminist legal perspective, the study conducts a comparative analysis of Georgian and German criminal law on sexual violence. Through this analysis, it demonstrates that framing rape as gender-based discrimination enhances both the conceptual clarity of the offence and the effectiveness of legal responses. The article further draws on key contributions from feminist legal scholarship to support its normative and analytical framework.
The study advocates for the reintegration of gender as a central analytical category in legal discourse and for the development of legal frameworks that more adequately address the structural inequalities underpinning sexual violence.
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References
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34. Obiora, L., & Perry, R. (2001). Feminist legal theory. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. Elsevier. Elsevier.
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48. Parliament of Georgia. (2025). Foreign Agents Registration Act. Retrieved April 24, 2026 from https://matsne.gov.ge
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50. People v. Liberta, 64 N.Y.2d 152 (1984).
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52. Vertido v. Philippines, Communication No. 18/2008 (CEDAW Committee, July 16, 2010).
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2. Bjørnholt, M. (2020). Theorising sexual violence in intimate relations in Scandinavia: A literature review. In M. B. Heinskou, M.-L. Skilbrei, & K. Stefansen (Eds.), Rape in the Nordic countries: Continuity and change. Routledge.
3. Bhat, P. I. (2015), ‘Comparative Method of Legal Research: Nature, Process and Potentiality,’ Journal of the Indian Law Institute, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 147–173.
4. CEDAW Committee. (1992). General recommendation No. 19.
5. CEDAW Committee. (2021). Ninth periodic report submitted by Germany.
6. CEDAW Committee. (2023). Concluding observations on the ninth periodic report of Germany.
7. Charlesworth, H., Chinkin, C., & Wright, S. (1991). Feminist approaches to international law. American Journal of International Law, 85(4), 613–645.
8. Chinkin, C. (2010). Feminism: Approach to international law. In Max Planck encyclopedia of international law. Oxford University Press.
9. Daly, K., & Bouhours, B. (2010). Rape and attrition in the legal process: A comparative analysis of five countries. Crime and Justice, 39(1), 565–650.
10. Dekanosidze, T., et al. (2020). The administration of justice on sexual violence crimes against women in Georgia. Tbilisi.
11. Dekanosidze, T. (2025). Removal of gender and gender identity terminology from legislation. European network of legal experts in Gender equality and non-discrimination. Retrieved April 24, 2026 from https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/6315-georgia-removal-of-gender-and-gender-identity-terminology-from-legislation
12. European Institute for Gender Equality. (n.d.). Gender-based violence: Regulatory and legal framework. Retrieved April 24, 2026 from https://eige.europa.eu/gender-based-violence/regulatory-and-legal-framework
13. European Women’s Lobby. (2013). Barometer on Rape. In Amnesty International Report (2018). Right to be free from rape: Overview of legislation and state of play in Europe and international human rights standards. Retrieved April 24, 2026 from https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur01/9452/2018/en/
14. Fattah, E. A. (2000). Victimology: Past, present and future. Criminologie, 33(1), 17–46.
15. Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth of Germany. (n.d.). Retrieved April 24, 2026 from https://www.bmfsfj.de
16. FitzGerald, S. A., & Skilbrei, M.-L. (2022). Sexual politics in contemporary Europe: Moving targets, sitting ducks.
17. Fredman, S. (2016). Substantive equality revisited: A rejoinder to Catharine MacKinnon. International Journal of Constitutional Law, 14(3), 747–751.
18. Freeman, M. A., Chinkin, C., & Rudolf, B. (2012). The UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and its Optional Protocol. Oxford University Press.
19. Gerger, H., et al. (2007). The acceptance of modern myths about sexual aggression scale: Development and validation in German and English. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 422–440.
20. German Women Lawyers Association (djb). (2021). Parallel report Istanbul Convention.
21. Heinskou, M. B., Skilbrei, M.-L., & Stefansen, K. (Eds.). (2020). Rape in the Nordic countries: Continuity and change. Routledge
22. Hörnle, T. (2023). The new German law on sexual assault. In T. Hörnle (Ed.), Sexual assault: Law reform in a comparative perspective. Oxford University Press.
23. Johnson, A. G. (2005). The gender knot: Unraveling our patriarchal legacy (Rev. ed.). Temple University Press.
24. Kherkheulidze, I. (2017). Re-conceptualizing sexual harassment: Premises and challenges. In G. Piccinelli et al. (Eds.), Reconsidering gender-based violence. Libellula Edizioni.
25. Kherkheulidze, I. (2025). Rape as socio-cultural phenomenon: A key to tackle gender-based violence. L’Europe Unie / United Europe, 22, 143–155.
26. Kherkheulidze, I. (2024). Sexual violence: Comparative overview of German and Georgian legal perspectives. TalTech Journal of European Studies, 14(1), 182–195.
27. Kotanen, R. (2020). From the protection of marriage to the defence of equality: The Finnish debate over the sexual autonomy of wives. In M. B. Heinskou et al. (Eds.), Rape in the Nordic countries. Routledge.
28. Kurtanidze, M., Abramishvili, N., & Pataraia, B. (2016). Femicide: A discriminatory crime and the state’s obligation to fight it. Tbilisi.
29. Lea, S. J., Lanvers, U., & Shaw, S. (2003). Attrition in rape cases: Developing a profile and identifying relevant factors. British Journal of Criminology, 43(3), 583–599.
30. MacKinnon, C. A. (2006). Are women human? And other international dialogues. Harvard University Press.
31. MacKinnon, C. A. (2016a). Rape redefined. Harvard Law & Policy Review, 10, 431–477.
32. MacKinnon, C. A. (2016b). Substantive equality revisited: A reply to Sandra Fredman. International Journal of Constitutional Law, 14(3), 739–746.
33. Moore, L., & Chinkin, C. (2018). The crime of rape in military and civilian jurisdictions. In M. Lattimer & P. Sands (Eds.), The grey zone. Oxford University Press.
34. Obiora, L., & Perry, R. (2001). Feminist legal theory. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. Elsevier. Elsevier.
35. Papp, A. (2013). Conspiracy of silence: Honour-based violence in North America. Buffalo Journal of Gender, Law & Social Policy, 22, 105–115.
36. Phipps, A., Ringrose, J., Renold, E., & Jackson, C. (2018). Rape culture, lad culture and everyday sexism. Journal of Gender Studies, 27(1), 1–8.
37. Shin, H. (2007). CEDAW and violence against women: Providing the missing link. In B. Schöpp-Schilling & C. Flinterman (Eds.), The circle of empowerment.
38. Šimonović, D., (2014). Global and regional standards on violence against women: The evolution and synergy of the CEDAW and Istanbul Convention. Human Rights Quarterly, 36, 590–606.
39. Social Justice Center. (2025). The removal of gender equality principles from legislation will worsen the situation of women. Retrieved April 24, 2026 from https://socialjustice.org.ge
40. Torenz, R. (2021). The politics of affirmative consent: Considerations from a gender and sexuality studies perspective. German Law Journal, 22, 718–733.
41. United Nations. (2026, March). Women’s Commission annual session begins with contentious recorded vote to adopt outcome document, calls to end backlash against gender equality. UN Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. Retrieved April 24, 2026 from https://press.un.org/en/2026/wom2249.doc.htm
42. Walby, S., et al. (2015). Stopping rape: Towards a comprehensive policy. University of Bristol.
43. Wolf, A.-K., & Werner, M. (2021). Victims’ rights looking good on paper: How criminal prosecution in Germany fails victims of sexual violence. German Law Journal, 22, 800–816.
44. Council of Europe. (2011). Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention) (CETS No. 210)
45. Council of Europe. (2011). Explanatory report to the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (Istanbul Convention, CETS No. 210). Retrieved April 14, 2026 from https://rm.coe.int/16800d383a
46. M.C. v. Bulgaria, Application No. 39272/98 (European Court of Human Rights, December 4, 2003).
47. Parliament of Georgia. (2025). Explanatory note on amendments to the law on gender equality. Retrieved April 24, 2026 from https://info.parliament.ge
48. Parliament of Georgia. (2025). Foreign Agents Registration Act. Retrieved April 24, 2026 from https://matsne.gov.ge
49. Parliament of Georgia. (2025). Law on amendments to the law of Georgia on gender equality. Retrieved April 14, 2026 from https://matsne.gov.ge
50. People v. Liberta, 64 N.Y.2d 152 (1984).
51. R. v. Osolin, [1993] 4 S.C.R. 595 (Canada).
52. Vertido v. Philippines, Communication No. 18/2008 (CEDAW Committee, July 16, 2010).
53. Women’s Initiatives for Gender Justice. (2019). The Hague principles on sexual violence. Retrieved April 24, 2026 from https://thehagueprinciples.org
Published
2026-06-10
How to Cite
Kherkheulidze, I. (2026). Rape as Gender-Based Violence and Discrimination Against Women: Analysis of German and Georgian Criminal Law Through the Lens of the International Anti-Discrimination Framework. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 54, 49. Retrieved from https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/21127
Section
ESI Preprints
Copyright (c) 2026 Irine Kherkheulidze
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
