The Performance of Small-Town Water Systems in the Upper West Region of Ghana
Keywords:
Water Systems, Systems Performance, Water Supply, Pump Failure, Pipe Leakages, Systems Functionality
Abstract
Small-town water systems are water supply systems built primarily for people living in rural or peri-urban areas in many developing countries. This study examined the performance of small-town water systems in the Upper West Region (UWR) of Ghana, focusing on functionality, management practices, and sustainability challenges. The study adopted an exploratory research design and applied both qualitative and quantitative methods, using surveys and interviews with water users, system operators, and officials from the Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA). The findings revealed that while most assessed small-town water systems were functional, they operated below optimal levels, with overall coverage below 3% across all selected districts. Frequent pump failures (46%), pipe leakages (22%), and an unstable power supply (16%) were identified as the main technical problems. Over half of the system operators lacked adequate training, and community involvement in managing the water systems was rare, as management was overly centralised under the CWSA. The study recommends the adoption of solar-powered mechanised water systems to reduce power-related interruptions, and a holistic approach to the management of the water systems that integrates technical efficiency, financial accountability, strong institutional collaboration, and inclusive community ownership to ensure the sustainability and optimal performance of small-town water systems in the UWR and similar systems in other developing countries.
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References
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26. Odjegba, E., Oluwasanya, G., Shittu, O., Idowu, O., & Brion, G. (2023). Service level indicators evaluation of water supply systems: water users’ perspective. Urban Water Journal, 20(10), 1532–1540. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2022.2134039
27. Osumanu, I. K., Zumayelleh, E. A., & Kosoe, E. A. (2022). Sustainability of community-managed small town and rural water systems in northern Ghana: lessons from Upper West Region. Community Development Journal, 57(1), 93–111. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsab015
28. Palash Chandra, P. C. (2026). Artificial Intelligence Based Predictive Modeling for Structural Health Monitoring and Failure Risk Assessment in Water and Sanitation Infrastructure. International Journal of Scientific Interdisciplinary Research, 07(01), 325–370. https://doi.org/10.63125/njg70d76
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32. Rijal, S. (2023). The Importance of Community Involvement in Public Management Planning and Decision-Making Processes. Journal of Contemporary Administration and Management (ADMAN), 1(2), 84–92. https://doi.org/10.61100/adman.v1i2.27
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35. Sofyani, H., Pratolo, S., & Saleh, Z. (2022). Do accountability and transparency promote community trust? Evidence from village government in Indonesia. Journal of Accounting & Organizational Change, 18(3), 397–418. https://doi.org/10.1108/JAOC-06-2020-0070
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37. Sukma, N., & Leelasantitham, A. (2022). The Influence and Continuance Intention of the E-Government System: A Case Study of Community Water Supply Business. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, 918981. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.918981
38. Vîlcea, C., Popescu, L., & Clincea, A. (2024). Does Shrinking Population in Small Towns Equal Economic and Social Decline? A Romanian Perspective. Urban Science, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8020060
39. Yap, C., Mcfarlane, C., Ndezi, T., & Makoba, F. D. (2023). Sanitation challenges in Dar es Salaam: the potential of Simplified Sewerage Systems. Environment and Urbanization, 35(1), 12–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/09562478221146722
40. Zhang, J., Li, Y., Yuan, H., Du, G., & Zhang, M. (2024). A demand-based three-stage seismic resilience assessment and multi-objective optimization method of community water distribution networks. Reliability Engineering and System Safety, 250, 110279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2024.110279
41. Zulkifli, C. Z., Garfan, S., Talal, M., Alamoodi, A. H., Alamleh, A., Ahmaro, I. Y. Y., Sulaiman, S., Ibrahim, A. B., Zaidan, B. B., Ismail, A. R., Albahri, O. S., Albahri, A. S., Soon, C. F., Harun, N. H., & Chiang, H. H. (2022). IoT-Based Water Monitoring Systems: A Systematic Review. In Water (Switzerland) (Vol. 14, Number 22, p. 3621). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14223621
2. Abid, S. K., Sulaiman, N., Al-Wathinani, A. M., & Goniewicz, K. (2024). Community-based flood mitigation in Malaysia: Enhancing public participation and policy effectiveness for sustainable resilience. Journal of Global Health, 14, 04290. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.14.04290
3. Abubakari, M. A., Kanlisi, S. K., & Sumbo, D. K. (2025). Understanding gender responsiveness and the role of WSMTs in the governance of rural water infrastructure in Ghana. Discover Water, 5(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00286-y
4. Achum Adeenze-Kangah, H. (2022). Maintenance of rural water supply facilities in the Builsa North District of the Upper East Region of Ghana. Ghana Journal of Geography, 14(1), 101–121. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjg.v14i1.6
5. ActionAid Ghana. (2025, September). Building Resilient Communities through Water Governance: ActionAid Ghana trains community committees on Borehole Management under the EU-REACH-funded CAPs Project. https://ghana.actionaid.org/news/2025/building-resilient-communities-through-water-governance-actionaid-ghana-trains-community
6. Community Water and Sanitation Agency. (2023). Water and Sanitation Activities in the Upper West Region. Water and Sanitation. https://www.cwsa.gov.gh/upper-west-region-3/water-and-sanitation/
7. Angmor, E., Frimpong, L. K., Mensah, S. L., & Okyere, S. A. (2024). Exploring the institutional barriers to rural water management in Ghana. Water Policy, 26(9), 921–940. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2024.130
8. Boasinke, R. K., & Braimah, I. (2022). Sustaining Water Systems in Rural and Small Towns in Ghana: The Role of Traditional Authorities in the Krachi West District. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 18(3), 10. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2022.v18n3p10
9. Cannon, R. A., Mihelcic, J. R., Ghebremichael, K., & Zhang, Q. (2022). Strategies to Improve Performance of Community-Managed Water Systems with System Dynamics Modeling. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 148(2), 04021079. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001958
10. Dakyaga, F., Kosoe, E. A., & Alhassan, G. (2023). Everyday politics in collaborative governance of (non)networked water infrastructures in rural and small towns of Ghana. Habitat International, 139, 102904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2023.102904
11. Farghali, M., Osman, A. I., Chen, Z., Abdelhaleem, A., Ihara, I., Mohamed, I. M. A., Yap, P. S., & Rooney, D. W. (2023). Social, environmental, and economic consequences of integrating renewable energies in the electricity sector: a review. In Environmental Chemistry Letters (Vol. 21, Number 3, pp. 1381–1418). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-023-01587-1
12. Geremew, A., Nijhawan, A., Mengistie, B., Mekbib, D., Flint, A., & Howard, G. (2024). Climate resilience of small-town water utilities in Eastern Ethiopia. PLOS Water, 3(5), e0000158. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000158
13. Hamzah, Z. L., Sulaiman, N. A., & Ismail, M. M. (2026). Public Governance, Service Delivery and Institutional Image. In Concepts of Corporate Governance and Public Governance (pp. 155–169). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-95-2449-5_8
14. Homayoun Aria, Sh., & Asadollahfardi, G. (2025). Sustainable Drinking Water Management. In ACS Symposium Series (pp. 41–63). https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2025-1502.ch002
15. International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC) Ghana. (2025, September). Strengthening Local Systems for Sustainable WASH. https://www.ircwash.org/news/strengthening-local-systems-sustainable-wash
16. Kosoe, E., Osumanu, I., & Ogwu, M. (2025). Reimagining Rural and Small-Town Water Supply in Ghana through Inclusive Governance and Sustainable Models. Journal of Sustainability, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.55845/jos-2025-1234
17. Kotoku, G., & Kumasi, T. C. (2022). Rethinking the sustainability of rural water delivery under the community ownership and management model. Sustainable Water Resources Management, 8(5), 164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-022-00751-9
18. Lema, M. W. (2025). Sustaining rural livelihoods through participatory water governance: a review of community-driven water resource management models in East and Central Africa. Frontiers in Water, 7, 1704600. https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2025.1704600
19. Machado, A. V. M., Oliveira, P. A. D., & Matos, P. G. (2022). Review of Community-Managed Water Supply—Factors Affecting Its Long-Term Sustainability. Water, 14(14), 2209. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14142209
20. Mantey, E. P., Kanwar, R. S., & Appiah-Effah, E. (2024). Assessment of Water Service Levels and User Satisfaction for Domestic Water Use in Emina-Boadi-Kumasi to Achieve the Sustainable Development of Urban Water Supply Systems in Ghana. Water (Switzerland), 16(22). https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223193
21. Martínez-Peláez, R., Ochoa-Brust, A., Rivera, S., Félix, V. G., Ostos, R., Brito, H., Félix, R. A., & Mena, L. J. (2023). Role of Digital Transformation for Achieving Sustainability: Mediated Role of Stakeholders, Key Capabilities, and Technology. Sustainability (Switzerland), 15(14). https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411221
22. Mazhar, S. A., Anjum, R., Anwar, A. I., & Khan, A. A. (2021). Methods of Data Collection: A Fundamental Tool of Research. Journal of Integrated Community Health (ISSN 2319-9113), 10(1), 6–10. https://doi.org/10.24321/2319.9113.202101
23. Mutanda, G. W., & Nhamo, G. (2024). Gendered perspective on water security, rights and conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. Frontiers in Water, 6, 1399415. https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2024.1399415
24. Ngochemmbo, G. G., Tanka, V. D., Feh, N. N., Kedia, R. K., Lufung, L. N., Chenyi, A. N., & Fuekang, M. K. (2025). Stakeholder resource mobilisation and agribusiness project sustainability: insights from donor-funded rice projects in Cameroon. Project Leadership and Society, 14(5), 100206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plas.2025.100206
25. Nyanyofio, J. G. T., Domfeh, K. A., Buabeng, T., Maloreh-Nyamekye, T., & Appiah-Agyekum, N. N. (2022). Governance and effectiveness of public–private partnership in Ghana’s rural-water sector. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 35(7), 709–732. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPSM-05-2021-0129
26. Odjegba, E., Oluwasanya, G., Shittu, O., Idowu, O., & Brion, G. (2023). Service level indicators evaluation of water supply systems: water users’ perspective. Urban Water Journal, 20(10), 1532–1540. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2022.2134039
27. Osumanu, I. K., Zumayelleh, E. A., & Kosoe, E. A. (2022). Sustainability of community-managed small town and rural water systems in northern Ghana: lessons from Upper West Region. Community Development Journal, 57(1), 93–111. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsab015
28. Palash Chandra, P. C. (2026). Artificial Intelligence Based Predictive Modeling for Structural Health Monitoring and Failure Risk Assessment in Water and Sanitation Infrastructure. International Journal of Scientific Interdisciplinary Research, 07(01), 325–370. https://doi.org/10.63125/njg70d76
29. Perveen, S., & Amar-Ul-Haque. (2023). Drinking water quality monitoring, assessment and management in Pakistan: A review. In Heliyon (Vol. 9, Number 3, p. e13872). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13872
30. Pointet, T. (2022). The United Nations World Water Development Report 2022 on groundwater, a synthesis. LHB: Hydroscience Journal, 108(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/27678490.2022.2090867
31. Powe, N. A., Connelly, S., & Nel, E. (2022). Planning for small town reorientation: Key policy choices within external support. Journal of Rural Studies, 90, 65–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.01.009
32. Rijal, S. (2023). The Importance of Community Involvement in Public Management Planning and Decision-Making Processes. Journal of Contemporary Administration and Management (ADMAN), 1(2), 84–92. https://doi.org/10.61100/adman.v1i2.27
33. Safe Water Network. (2021, November). Social Impact Study on Piped-Connection Services for Safely Managed Water. https://safewaternetwork.org/knowledge-hub/social-impact-study-on-piped-connection-services-for-safely-managed-water/
34. Sharpe, T., Iribagiza, C., Iorkumbur, E., Coyle, J., Fenwick, C., Greggio, E., Kassam, P., Feighery, J., Andres, L., & Thomas, E. (2022). Electronic sensors to monitor functionality and usage trends of rural water infrastructure in Plateau State, Nigeria. Development Engineering, 7(6), 100100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.deveng.2022.100100
35. Sofyani, H., Pratolo, S., & Saleh, Z. (2022). Do accountability and transparency promote community trust? Evidence from village government in Indonesia. Journal of Accounting & Organizational Change, 18(3), 397–418. https://doi.org/10.1108/JAOC-06-2020-0070
36. Spocter, M. (2023). Neglect of Municipal Infrastructure in Phalaborwa. In GeoJournal Library: Part F1097 (pp. 47–78). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37142-4_3
37. Sukma, N., & Leelasantitham, A. (2022). The Influence and Continuance Intention of the E-Government System: A Case Study of Community Water Supply Business. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, 918981. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.918981
38. Vîlcea, C., Popescu, L., & Clincea, A. (2024). Does Shrinking Population in Small Towns Equal Economic and Social Decline? A Romanian Perspective. Urban Science, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8020060
39. Yap, C., Mcfarlane, C., Ndezi, T., & Makoba, F. D. (2023). Sanitation challenges in Dar es Salaam: the potential of Simplified Sewerage Systems. Environment and Urbanization, 35(1), 12–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/09562478221146722
40. Zhang, J., Li, Y., Yuan, H., Du, G., & Zhang, M. (2024). A demand-based three-stage seismic resilience assessment and multi-objective optimization method of community water distribution networks. Reliability Engineering and System Safety, 250, 110279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2024.110279
41. Zulkifli, C. Z., Garfan, S., Talal, M., Alamoodi, A. H., Alamleh, A., Ahmaro, I. Y. Y., Sulaiman, S., Ibrahim, A. B., Zaidan, B. B., Ismail, A. R., Albahri, O. S., Albahri, A. S., Soon, C. F., Harun, N. H., & Chiang, H. H. (2022). IoT-Based Water Monitoring Systems: A Systematic Review. In Water (Switzerland) (Vol. 14, Number 22, p. 3621). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14223621
Published
2026-03-10
How to Cite
Bowan, P. A., & Amin, A. D. (2026). The Performance of Small-Town Water Systems in the Upper West Region of Ghana. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 51, 138. Retrieved from https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/20737
Section
ESI Preprints
Copyright (c) 2026 Patrick Aaniamenga Bowan, Adams Duma Amin
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
