The Performance of Small-Town Water Systems in the Upper West Region of Ghana
Keywords:
Water Systems, Systems Performance, Water Supply, Pump Failure, Pipe Leakages, Systems Functionality
Abstract
Small-town water systems are supply systems designed mainly for residents in rural or peri-urban areas in many developing countries. This study investigated the performance of small-town water systems in the Upper West Region (UWR) of Ghana, focusing on functionality, management practices, and sustainability issues. It used an exploratory research design and combined both qualitative and quantitative methods, including surveys and interviews with water users, system operators, and officials from the Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA). Results showed that although most small-town water systems were operational, they functioned below optimal levels, with overall coverage remaining under 3% across all selected districts. Major technical problems included frequent pump failures (46%), pipe leakages (22%), and unreliable power supply (16%). More than half of the system operators lacked sufficient training, and community involvement in water management was rare, as control was predominantly centralised within the CWSA. The study recommends adopting solar-powered mechanised water systems to minimise power-related disruptions, along with a comprehensive approach to water system management that encompasses technical efficiency, financial accountability, strong institutional collaboration, and inclusive community ownership to ensure sustainability and the optimal performance of small-town water systems in the UWR and similar systems in other developing countries.
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References
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24. Mutanda, G. W., & Nhamo, G. (2024). Gendered perspective on water security, rights and conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. Frontiers in Water, 6, 1399415.
https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2024.1399415
25. Ngochemmbo, G. G., Tanka, V. D., Feh, N. N., Kedia, R. K., Lufung, L. N., Chenyi, A. N., & Fuekang, M. K. (2025). Stakeholder resource mobilisation and agribusiness project sustainability: insights from donor-funded rice projects in Cameroon. Project Leadership and Society, 14(5), 100206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plas.2025.100206
26. Nyanyofio, J. G. T., Domfeh, K. A., Buabeng, T., Maloreh-Nyamekye, T., & Appiah-Agyekum, N. N. (2022). Governance and effectiveness of public–private partnership in Ghana’s rural-water sector. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 35(7), 709–732.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPSM-05-2021-0129
27. Nyika, J., & Dinka, M. O. (2023). Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa (pp. 39–55). Springer, Cham.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26271-5_3
28. Odjegba, E., Oluwasanya, G., Shittu, O., Idowu, O., & Brion, G. (2023). Service level indicators evaluation of water supply systems: water users’ perspective. Urban Water Journal, 20(10), 1532–1540.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2022.2134039
29. Osumanu, I. K., Zumayelleh, E. A., & Kosoe, E. A. (2022). Sustainability of community-managed small town and rural water systems in northern Ghana: lessons from Upper West Region. Community Development Journal, 57(1), 93–111.
https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsab015
30. Palash Chandra, P. C. (2026). Artificial Intelligence Based Predictive Modeling for Structural Health Monitoring and Failure Risk Assessment in Water and Sanitation Infrastructure. International Journal of Scientific Interdisciplinary Research, 07(01), 325–370.
https://doi.org/10.63125/njg70d76
31. Perveen, S., & Amar-Ul-Haque. (2023). Drinking water quality monitoring, assessment and management in Pakistan: A review. In Heliyon (Vol. 9, Number 3, p. e13872). Elsevier.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13872
32. Pointet, T. (2022). The United Nations World Water Development Report 2022 on groundwater, a synthesis. LHB: Hydroscience Journal, 108(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/27678490.2022.2090867
33. Powe, N. A., Connelly, S., & Nel, E. (2022). Planning for small town reorientation: Key policy choices within external support. Journal of Rural Studies, 90, 65–75.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.01.009
34. Rijal, S. (2023). The Importance of Community Involvement in Public Management Planning and Decision-Making Processes. Journal of Contemporary Administration and Management (ADMAN), 1(2), 84–92. https://doi.org/10.61100/adman.v1i2.27
35. Safe Water Network. (2021, November). Social Impact Study on Piped-Connection Services for Safely Managed Water.
https://safewaternetwork.org/knowledge-hub/social-impact-study-on-piped-connection-services-for-safely-managed-water/
36. Sharpe, T., Iribagiza, C., Iorkumbur, E., Coyle, J., Fenwick, C., Greggio, E., Kassam, P., Feighery, J., Andres, L., & Thomas, E. (2022). Electronic sensors to monitor functionality and usage trends of rural water infrastructure in Plateau State, Nigeria. Development Engineering, 7(6), 100100.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.deveng.2022.100100
37. Sofyani, H., Pratolo, S., & Saleh, Z. (2022). Do accountability and transparency promote community trust? Evidence from village government in Indonesia. Journal of Accounting & Organizational Change, 18(3), 397–418. https://doi.org/10.1108/JAOC-06-2020-0070
38. Spocter, M. (2023). Neglect of Municipal Infrastructure in Phalaborwa. In GeoJournal Library: Part F1097 (pp. 47–78). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37142-4_3
39. Sukma, N., & Leelasantitham, A. (2022). The Influence and Continuance Intention of the E-Government System: A Case Study of Community Water Supply Business. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, 918981. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.918981
40. Vîlcea, C., Popescu, L., & Clincea, A. (2024). Does Shrinking Population in Small Towns Equal Economic and Social Decline? A Romanian Perspective. Urban Science, 8(2).
https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8020060
41. Yap, C., Mcfarlane, C., Ndezi, T., & Makoba, F. D. (2023). Sanitation challenges in Dar es Salaam: the potential of Simplified Sewerage Systems. Environment and Urbanization, 35(1), 12–29.
https://doi.org/10.1177/09562478221146722
42. Zhang, J., Li, Y., Yuan, H., Du, G., & Zhang, M. (2024). A demand-based three-stage seismic resilience assessment and multi-objective optimization method of community water distribution networks. Reliability Engineering and System Safety, 250, 110279.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2024.110279
43. Zulkifli, C. Z., Garfan, S., Talal, M., Alamoodi, A. H., Alamleh, A., Ahmaro, I. Y. Y., Sulaiman, S., Ibrahim, A. B., Zaidan, B. B., Ismail, A. R., Albahri, O. S., Albahri, A. S., Soon, C. F., Harun, N. H., & Chiang, H. H. (2022). IoT-Based Water Monitoring Systems: A Systematic Review. In Water (Switzerland) (Vol. 14, Number 22, p. 3621). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14223621
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2023.100853
2. Abid, S. K., Sulaiman, N., Al-Wathinani, A. M., & Goniewicz, K. (2024). Community-based flood mitigation in Malaysia: Enhancing public participation and policy effectiveness for sustainable resilience. Journal of Global Health, 14, 04290.
https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.14.04290
3. Abubakari, M. A., Kanlisi, S. K., & Sumbo, D. K. (2025). Understanding gender responsiveness and the role of WSMTs in the governance of rural water infrastructure in Ghana. Discover Water, 5(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00286-y
4. Achum Adeenze-Kangah, H. (2022). Maintenance of rural water supply facilities in the Builsa North District of the Upper East Region of Ghana. Ghana Journal of Geography, 14(1), 101–121.
https://doi.org/10.4314/gjg.v14i1.6
5. ActionAid Ghana. (2025, September). Building Resilient Communities through Water Governance: ActionAid Ghana trains community committees on Borehole Management under the EU-REACH-funded CAPs Project. https://ghana.actionaid.org/news/2025/building-resilient-communities-through-water-governance-actionaid-ghana-trains-community
6. Angmor, E., Frimpong, L. K., Mensah, S. L., & Okyere, S. A. (2024). Exploring the institutional barriers to rural water management in Ghana. Water Policy, 26(9), 921–940.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2024.130
7. Boasinke, R. K., & Braimah, I. (2022). Sustaining Water Systems in Rural and Small Towns in Ghana: The Role of Traditional Authorities in the Krachi West District. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 18(3), 10. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2022.v18n3p10
8. Cannon, R. A., Mihelcic, J. R., Ghebremichael, K., & Zhang, Q. (2022). Strategies to Improve Performance of Community-Managed Water Systems with System Dynamics Modeling. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 148(2), 04021079. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001958
9. Chassang, S., & Kapon, S. (2022). Designing randomized controlled trials with external validity in mind (No. w30762). National Bureau of Economic Research.
10. Community Water and Sanitation Agency. (2023). Water and Sanitation Activities in the Upper West Region. Water and Sanitation. https://www.cwsa.gov.gh/upper-west-region-3/water-and-sanitation/
11. Dakyaga, F., Kosoe, E. A., & Alhassan, G. (2023). Everyday politics in collaborative governance of (non)networked water infrastructures in rural and small towns of Ghana. Habitat International, 139, 102904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2023.102904
12. Farghali, M., Osman, A. I., Chen, Z., Abdelhaleem, A., Ihara, I., Mohamed, I. M. A., Yap, P. S., & Rooney, D. W. (2023). Social, environmental, and economic consequences of integrating renewable energies in the electricity sector: a review. In Environmental Chemistry Letters (Vol. 21, Number 3, pp. 1381–1418). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-023-01587-1
13. Geremew, A., Nijhawan, A., Mengistie, B., Mekbib, D., Flint, A., & Howard, G. (2024). Climate resilience of small-town water utilities in Eastern Ethiopia. PLOS Water, 3(5), e0000158.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000158
14. Hamzah, Z. L., Sulaiman, N. A., & Ismail, M. M. (2026). Public Governance, Service Delivery and Institutional Image. In Concepts of Corporate Governance and Public Governance (pp. 155–169). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-95-2449-5_8
15. International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC) Ghana. (2025, September). Strengthening Local Systems for Sustainable WASH.
https://www.ircwash.org/news/strengthening-local-systems-sustainable-wash
16. Kosoe, E., Osumanu, I., & Ogwu, M. (2025). Reimagining Rural and Small-Town Water Supply in Ghana through Inclusive Governance and Sustainable Models. Journal of Sustainability, 1(2).
https://doi.org/10.55845/jos-2025-1234
17. Li, L., Rysavy, M. A., Bobashev, G., & Das, A. (2024). Comparing methods for risk prediction of multicategory outcomes: dichotomized logistic regression vs. multinomial logit regression. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 24(1), 261. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-024-02389-x
18. Machado, A. V. M., Oliveira, P. A. D., & Matos, P. G. (2022). Review of Community-Managed Water Supply—Factors Affecting Its Long-Term Sustainability. Water, 14(14), 2209.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w14142209
19. Mantey, E. P., Kanwar, R. S., & Appiah-Effah, E. (2024). Assessment of Water Service Levels and User Satisfaction for Domestic Water Use in Emina-Boadi-Kumasi to Achieve the Sustainable Development of Urban Water Supply Systems in Ghana. Water (Switzerland), 16(22). https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223193
20. Martínez-Peláez, R., Ochoa-Brust, A., Rivera, S., Félix, V. G., Ostos, R., Brito, H., Félix, R. A., & Mena, L. J. (2023). Role of Digital Transformation for Achieving Sustainability: Mediated Role of Stakeholders, Key Capabilities, and Technology. Sustainability (Switzerland), 15(14). https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411221
21. Matchawe, C., Bonny, P., Yandang, G., Cecile Yangoua Mafo, H., & J. Nsawir, B. (2022). Water Shortages: Cause of Water Safety in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Drought - Impacts and Management. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.103927
22. Mazhar, S. A., Anjum, R., Anwar, A. I., & Khan, A. A. (2021). Methods of Data Collection: A Fundamental Tool of Research. Journal of Integrated Community Health (ISSN 2319-9113), 10(1), 6–10. https://doi.org/10.24321/2319.9113.202101
23. Musiimenta, B. E., Tutusaus, M., & Schwartz, K. (2023). The practice of integrated asset management in Ugandan small towns. Water Policy, 25(3), 237–252. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2023.213
24. Mutanda, G. W., & Nhamo, G. (2024). Gendered perspective on water security, rights and conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. Frontiers in Water, 6, 1399415.
https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2024.1399415
25. Ngochemmbo, G. G., Tanka, V. D., Feh, N. N., Kedia, R. K., Lufung, L. N., Chenyi, A. N., & Fuekang, M. K. (2025). Stakeholder resource mobilisation and agribusiness project sustainability: insights from donor-funded rice projects in Cameroon. Project Leadership and Society, 14(5), 100206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plas.2025.100206
26. Nyanyofio, J. G. T., Domfeh, K. A., Buabeng, T., Maloreh-Nyamekye, T., & Appiah-Agyekum, N. N. (2022). Governance and effectiveness of public–private partnership in Ghana’s rural-water sector. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 35(7), 709–732.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPSM-05-2021-0129
27. Nyika, J., & Dinka, M. O. (2023). Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa (pp. 39–55). Springer, Cham.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26271-5_3
28. Odjegba, E., Oluwasanya, G., Shittu, O., Idowu, O., & Brion, G. (2023). Service level indicators evaluation of water supply systems: water users’ perspective. Urban Water Journal, 20(10), 1532–1540.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2022.2134039
29. Osumanu, I. K., Zumayelleh, E. A., & Kosoe, E. A. (2022). Sustainability of community-managed small town and rural water systems in northern Ghana: lessons from Upper West Region. Community Development Journal, 57(1), 93–111.
https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsab015
30. Palash Chandra, P. C. (2026). Artificial Intelligence Based Predictive Modeling for Structural Health Monitoring and Failure Risk Assessment in Water and Sanitation Infrastructure. International Journal of Scientific Interdisciplinary Research, 07(01), 325–370.
https://doi.org/10.63125/njg70d76
31. Perveen, S., & Amar-Ul-Haque. (2023). Drinking water quality monitoring, assessment and management in Pakistan: A review. In Heliyon (Vol. 9, Number 3, p. e13872). Elsevier.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13872
32. Pointet, T. (2022). The United Nations World Water Development Report 2022 on groundwater, a synthesis. LHB: Hydroscience Journal, 108(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/27678490.2022.2090867
33. Powe, N. A., Connelly, S., & Nel, E. (2022). Planning for small town reorientation: Key policy choices within external support. Journal of Rural Studies, 90, 65–75.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.01.009
34. Rijal, S. (2023). The Importance of Community Involvement in Public Management Planning and Decision-Making Processes. Journal of Contemporary Administration and Management (ADMAN), 1(2), 84–92. https://doi.org/10.61100/adman.v1i2.27
35. Safe Water Network. (2021, November). Social Impact Study on Piped-Connection Services for Safely Managed Water.
https://safewaternetwork.org/knowledge-hub/social-impact-study-on-piped-connection-services-for-safely-managed-water/
36. Sharpe, T., Iribagiza, C., Iorkumbur, E., Coyle, J., Fenwick, C., Greggio, E., Kassam, P., Feighery, J., Andres, L., & Thomas, E. (2022). Electronic sensors to monitor functionality and usage trends of rural water infrastructure in Plateau State, Nigeria. Development Engineering, 7(6), 100100.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.deveng.2022.100100
37. Sofyani, H., Pratolo, S., & Saleh, Z. (2022). Do accountability and transparency promote community trust? Evidence from village government in Indonesia. Journal of Accounting & Organizational Change, 18(3), 397–418. https://doi.org/10.1108/JAOC-06-2020-0070
38. Spocter, M. (2023). Neglect of Municipal Infrastructure in Phalaborwa. In GeoJournal Library: Part F1097 (pp. 47–78). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37142-4_3
39. Sukma, N., & Leelasantitham, A. (2022). The Influence and Continuance Intention of the E-Government System: A Case Study of Community Water Supply Business. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, 918981. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.918981
40. Vîlcea, C., Popescu, L., & Clincea, A. (2024). Does Shrinking Population in Small Towns Equal Economic and Social Decline? A Romanian Perspective. Urban Science, 8(2).
https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8020060
41. Yap, C., Mcfarlane, C., Ndezi, T., & Makoba, F. D. (2023). Sanitation challenges in Dar es Salaam: the potential of Simplified Sewerage Systems. Environment and Urbanization, 35(1), 12–29.
https://doi.org/10.1177/09562478221146722
42. Zhang, J., Li, Y., Yuan, H., Du, G., & Zhang, M. (2024). A demand-based three-stage seismic resilience assessment and multi-objective optimization method of community water distribution networks. Reliability Engineering and System Safety, 250, 110279.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2024.110279
43. Zulkifli, C. Z., Garfan, S., Talal, M., Alamoodi, A. H., Alamleh, A., Ahmaro, I. Y. Y., Sulaiman, S., Ibrahim, A. B., Zaidan, B. B., Ismail, A. R., Albahri, O. S., Albahri, A. S., Soon, C. F., Harun, N. H., & Chiang, H. H. (2022). IoT-Based Water Monitoring Systems: A Systematic Review. In Water (Switzerland) (Vol. 14, Number 22, p. 3621). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14223621
Published
2026-04-30
How to Cite
Bowan, P. A., & Amin, A. D. (2026). The Performance of Small-Town Water Systems in the Upper West Region of Ghana. European Scientific Journal, ESJ, 22(11), 20. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2026.v22n11p20
Section
ESJ Humanities
Copyright (c) 2026 Patrick Aaniamenga Bowan, Adams Duma Amin
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
