Smartphone Addiction Among Undergraduates in Lagos State, Nigeria
Abstract
Smartphone use has significant implications for the mental health of youth, particularly undergraduates who perceive it as an integral part of their identity and social lives. Although previous studies have examined the effects of smartphones globally, limited attention has been given to undergraduates in Lagos State. This study investigates the level of addiction to smartphones and as a mental health indicator among undergraduates in Lagos State, Nigeria. Anchored on the Problematic Internet Use Model, the study employed a survey research method. The population comprised undergraduates from public and private universities in Lagos State, Nigeria. Multistage sampling procedure was adopted: first, universities in Lagos State were stratified into public and private; second, simple random technique enhanced the selection of three each of public and private universities out of a total of four public and five private universities; third, disproportionate sampling approach guided the allotment of 105 respondents each to the six selected universities where a total of 630 undergraduates aged 20–40 participated; and forth, convenience sampling was employed to enumerate the specific respondents. The study employed a self-developed Smartphone Addiction Questionnaire (SAQ), which contains demographics and 12 closed-ended items to elicit data from the undergraduates. The questionnaire was validated by reviews from two scholars, each from the fields of Communication and Media Studies and Test and Measurement, who reviewed the instrument on face value. Subsequently, a reliability test was conducted among 60 undergraduates who were subsets of the population but not part of the sampled universities for the main study. The findings were analysed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, which yielded 0.84, indicating acceptable reliability for the study. The survey was carried out online using Google Forms over a period of four months, from June to October 2025, when the undergraduates were on holiday. Ethically, the study was carried out among adults whose consent was sought and secured before the study was conducted. There was also strict adherence to anonymity and confidentiality clauses. Descriptive statistics were applied. Results revealed that 76.8% of respondents were female, and 58.4% spent more than six hours daily on their smartphones. There is a moderate level of smartphone addiction among undergraduates in Lagos State, Nigeria (M = 2.940, SD = 1.120), manifesting in a habitual and compulsive usage pattern without widespread severe impairment. There is a need for preventive interventions on compulsive smartphone checking and anxiety-related dependence to avoid undergraduates skidding into severe addictions.
Downloads
PlumX Statistics
References
2. Armstrong, L., Phillips, J. G., & Saling, L. L. (2000). Potential determinants of heavier internet usage. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 53(4), 537–550. https://doi.org/10.1006/ijhc.2000.0400
3. Assunção, R. S., & Matos, P. M. (2017). The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2: Validation and test of the model to Facebook use. Journal of Adolescence, 54, 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.11.007
4. Balogun, O. J., Quadri, G. O., Ukpere, W. I., & Joseph, C. (2025). Smartphone addiction as predictors of suicidal behaviour among undergraduates. Annals of Spiru Haret University: Economic Series, 25(1), 509–528. https://doi.org/10.26458/25125
5. Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic. Guilford Press.
6. Barlow, D. H. (2000). Unravelling the mysteries of anxiety and its disorders from the perspective of emotion theory. American Psychologist, 55(11), 1247–1263. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.11.1247
7. Barlow, D. H. (2002). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
8. Billieux, J., Maurage, P., Lopez-Fernandez, O., Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Problematic mobile phone use as behavioral addiction. Current Addiction Reports, 2(2), 156–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-015-0054-y
9. Block, J. J. (2008). Issues for DSM-V: Internet addiction. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(3), 306–307. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101556
10. Boumosleh, J. M., & Jaalouk, D. (2017). Depression, anxiety, and smartphone addiction in university students: A cross-sectional study. PLOS ONE, 12(8), e0182239. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182239
11. Brand, M., Wegmann, E., Stark, R., Müller, A., Wölfling, K., Robbins, T. W., & Potenza, M. N. (2019). The I-PACE model of addictive behaviors. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 104, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.06.032
12. Busch, P. A., & McCarthy, S. (2021). Problematic smartphone use: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 114, 106414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106414
13. Cain, N., & Gradisar, M. (2010). Electronic media use and sleep in school-aged children and adolescents: A review. Sleep Medicine, 11(8), 735–742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2010.02.006
14. Caplan, S. E. (2002). Problematic internet use and psychosocial well-being: Development of a theory-based cognitive–behavioural measurement instrument. Computers in Human Behavior, 18(5), 553–575. https://doi.org/10,1016/S0747-5632(02)00004-3
15. Caplan, S. E. (2005). A social skill account of problematic internet use. Journal of Communication, 55(4), 721–736. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb03019.x
16. Caplan, S. E. (2007). Relations among loneliness, social anxiety, and problematic internet use. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10(2), 234–242. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9963
17. Caplan, S. E. (2010). Theory and measurement of generalized problematic internet use: A two-step approach. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 1089–1097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chp.2010.03.012
18. Ceyhan, A. A., & Ceyhan, E. (2008). Loneliness, depression, and computer self-efficacy as predictors of problematic internet use. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11(6), 699–701. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.0130
19. Colten, H. R., Attevogt, B. M., & Institute of Medicine. (2007). Sleep disorders and sleep deprivation: An unmet public health problem. National Academies Press.
20. Davis, R. A. (2001). A cognitive-behavioural model of pathological internet use. Computers in Human Behavior, 17(2), 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(00)00041-8
21. Elhai, J. D., Levine, J. C., Dvorak, R. D., & Hall, B. J. (2017). Problematic smartphone use and mental health. Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.030
22. Elhai, J. D., Yang, H., & Montag, C. (2019). Cognitive-behavioral model of smartphone addiction. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 8(3), 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.8.2019.26
23. Griffiths, M. D. (2005). A ‘components’ model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework. Journal of Substance Use, 10(4), 191–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/1465980500114359
24. Hwang, K. H., Yoo, Y. S., & Cho, O. H. (2012). Smartphone overuse and upper extremity pain, anxiety, depression, and interpersonal relationships among college students. Journal of the Korea Contents Association, 12(10), 365–375. https://doi.org/10.5392/JKCA.2012.12.10.365
25. Igberase, O. O., & Okogbenin, E. E. (2017). Beliefs about the cause of schizophrenia among caregivers in midwestern Nigeria. Mental Illness, 9(1), Article 6983. https://doi.org/10.4081/mi.2017.6983
26. Jacobs, D. F. (1986). A general theory of addictions: A new theoretical model. Journal of Gambling Studies, 2(1), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01019931
27. Jorm, A. F., Korten, A. E., Jacomb, P. A., Christensen, H., Rodgers, B., & Pollitt, P. (1997). Public beliefs about causes and risk factors for depression and schizophrenia. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 32(3), 143–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00801719
28. Kim, H., & Davis, K. E. (2009). Toward a comprehensive theory of problematic internet use: Evaluating the role of self-esteem, anxiety, and self-regulation. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(2), 490–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.11.001
29. Kim, J., Seo, M., & David, P. (2020). Alleviating depression and loneliness through smartphone use: The moderating role of self-disclosure. Computers in Human Behavior, 102, 132–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.8.020
30. Kirvan, P. (2023). Smartphone definition and history. TechTarget. Retrieved from https://www.techtarget.com
31. Kumar, R., Chandrasekaran, R., & Brahadeeswari, K. (2019). Impact of smartphone usage on sleep quality among adolescents. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 8(5), 1669–1674. https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_259_19
32. Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2017). Social networking and addiction: A review of the psychological literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(3), 311. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14030311
33. LaRose, R., Lin, C. A., & Eastin, M. S. (2003). Unregulated internet usage: Addiction, habit, or deficient self-regulation? Media Psychology, 5(3), 225–253. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532785XMEP0503_01
34. Lee, B. W., & Stapinski, L. A. (2012). Seeking safety on the internet: Relationship between social anxiety and problematic internet use. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26(1), 197–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.11.001
35. Lepp, A., Barkley, J. E., & Karpinski, A. C. (2015). The relationship between cell phone use, academic performance, anxiety, and satisfaction with life in college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 343–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.049
36. Lin, Y. H., Chiang, C. L., Lin, P. H., Chang, L. R., & Ko, C. H. (2016). Smartphone addiction and its association with sleep disturbance and anxiety. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 5(3), 465–473. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.5.2016.028
37. Lovibond, P. F., & Shanks, D. R. (2002). The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: Empirical evidence and theoretical implications. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 28(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/0097-7403.28.1.3
38. Moattari, M., Moattari, F., Kaka, G., Kouchesfahani, H., Sadraie, S. H., & Naghdi, M. (2017). Mobile phone addiction: A new form of behavioral addiction. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 11(2), e640. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijpbs.640
39. Montag, C., Wegmann, E., Sariyska, R., Demetrovics, Z., & Brand, M. (2021). How to overcome taxonomical problems in the study of internet use disorders and what to do with “smartphone addiction”? Journal of Behavioural Addictions, 9(4), 908-914. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.8.2019.59
40. Nkwo, P. O., Mensah, J., Mushi, D., & Dlamini, S. (2025). Problematic smartphone use and mental health outcomes among African undergraduates. African Journal of Psychology, 12(2), 45–62.
41. Ogunmodede, J. A., Dele-Ojo, B.F., Ogunmodede, A.J., Buhari, N. O. I., Agede,O. A., Bojuwoye, M.O.,Bello, H. A., Olatunji, A.G., & Odeigah, L.O. (2023).The Influence of Smartphone Use on Psychological Distress in University Undergraduates. Journal of Education and Community Health,10(2), 78-86. doi:10.34172/jech.2023.2314
42. Premise. (2022). Smartphone penetration in Nigeria. Premise Data Insights. Retrieved from https://www.premise.com
43. Samaha, M., & Hawi, N. S. (2016). Relationships among smartphone addiction, stress, academic performance, and satisfaction with life. Computers in Human Behavior, 57, 321–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.045
44. Shannon, K. E., Bennett, T. L., Goldstein, A. N., & Barlow, D. H. (2009). The neurobiology of anxiety disorders: Stress, fear, and the amygdala. Psychological Bulletin, 135(6), 974–1000. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017225
45. Sohn, S., Krasnoff, R., Rees, P., Kalk, N. J., & Carter, B. (2021). The association between smartphone addiction and sleep: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 56, 101414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2020.101414
46. Sussman, S. (2011). Defining addiction: A conceptual framework. Journ al of Behavioral Addictions, 1(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1556/JBA.1.2011.1.2
47. Wellington, O. A., Adepoju, A. A., & Fagbemi, O. (2024). Emotional distress and smartphone use among undergraduates in Ogun State. Nigerian Journal of Communication Studies, 28(2), 112–130.
Copyright (c) 2026 Muftau Olanrewaju Biobaku, Abayomi Bamidele Adisa
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
