Cartographie numérique de la fertilité des sols du bassin arachidier sénégalais par modélisation spatiale de l’azote, du phosphore et du potassium : une étude exploratoire combinant krigeage de régression et apprentissage automatique
Abstract
La fertilité des sols semi-arides d’Afrique de l’Ouest, en particulier du bassin arachidier sénégalais, est soumise à une dégradation progressive liée aux pressions anthropiques et climatiques. En l’absence des cartes pédologiques actualisées à haute résolution, la gestion raisonnée des intrants agricoles demeure difficile à l’échelle parcellaire. Cette étude vise à prédire et spatialiser les teneurs en azote total (N), phosphore disponible (P) et potassium échangeable (K) sur 148 433 polygones du bassin arachidier du Sénégal (Observatoire de Niakhar). Elle propose une approche de cartographie numérique des sols (CNS) combinant neuf algorithmes d’apprentissage automatique. Les données d’entraînement proviennent de 10 classes de sols prédictives en fonction des covariables SCORPAN (Végétation, topographie, climat et géologie), où 100 échantillons ont été prélevés, soit 10 échantillons par classe de sol. Ces échantillons ont été regroupés en 10 échantillons composites soit un échantillon composite par classe de sol, ce qui a donné un effectif réel pour la modélisation : n = 10). La validation est réalisée par validation croisée leave-one-out (LOO-CV) inter-clusters. Les résultats montrent que MARS obtient les meilleures performances pour N (R² = 0,457 ; RMSE = 0,0187 % ; RPD = 1,43) et que la MLR est la plus robuste pour K (R² = 0,386 ; RPD = 1,35). La prédiction du phosphore s’avère particulièrement délicate avec R² < 0 pour tous les modèles en LOO-CV, CV = 150 %. Le krigeage de régression produit des cartes choroplèthes couvrant l’intégralité du domaine. Les valeurs médianes prédites sont N = 0,054 % ; P = 5,17 ppm ; K = 0,085 meq/100 g. Le cluster 9 se distingue comme un hotspot de phosphore (P moyen = 31 ppm). Ces résultats constituent une première base cartographique exploratoire. En raison du faible effectif d’entraînement (n = 10) et de l’absence de jeu de validation indépendant, les cartes ne peuvent pas encore être utilisées pour des recommandations de fertilisation précises à l’échelle parcellaire.
The fertility of semi-arid soils in West Africa, particularly in the Senegalese groundnut basin, is subject to progressive degradation linked to anthropogenic and climatic pressures. In the absence of updated high-resolution pedological maps, sound management of agricultural inputs remains difficult at the field scale. This study aims to predict and spatialize total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), and exchangeable potassium (K) content across 148,433 polygons of Senegal's groundnut basin (Niakhar Observatory). It proposes a digital soil mapping (DSM) approach combining nine machine learning algorithms. Training data come from 10 predictive soil classes defined according to SCORPAN covariates (Vegetation, topography, climate, and geology), for which 100 samples were collected, i.e., 10 samples per soil class. These samples were pooled into 10 composite samples, one composite sample per soil class, resulting in an actual modeling sample size of n = 10. Validation was carried out through inter-cluster leave-one-out cross-validation (LOO-CV). Results show that MARS achieved the best performance for N (R² = 0.457; RMSE = 0.0187%; RPD = 1.43), while MLR was the most robust for K (R² = 0.386; RPD = 1.35). Phosphorus prediction proved particularly challenging, with R² < 0 for all models under LOO-CV (CV = 150%). Regression kriging produced choropleth maps covering the entire study domain. Predicted median values were N = 0.054%; P = 5.17 ppm; K = 0.085 meq/100 g. Cluster 9 stood out as a phosphorus hotspot (mean P = 31 ppm). These results constitute a first exploratory cartographic baseline. Given the small training sample size (n = 10) and the absence of an independent validation dataset, the maps cannot yet be used for precise fertilization recommendations at the field scale.
Downloads
PlumX Statistics
References
Banque Mondiale. (2025, May 15). Revitaliser les sols d’Afrique de l’Ouest. World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/fr/africacan/revitaliser-les-sols-afrique-de-ouest
Bationo, A., Vanlauwe, B., Kihara, J., & Kimetu, J. (2004). Soil organic carbon dynamics, functions and management in West African agro-ecosystems. CIAT–TSBF, Nairobi, 51 p.
Behrens, T., Zhu, A.-X., Schmidt, K., & Scholten, T. (2010). Multi-scale digital terrain analysis and feature selection for digital soil mapping. Geoderma, 155(3-4), 195-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.07.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.07.010
Brus, D. J., & Heuvelink, G. B. M. (2007). Optimization of sample patterns for universal kriging of environmental variables. Geoderma, 138(1-2), 86-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2006.10.016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2006.10.016
Cambule, A. H., Rossiter, D. G., Stoorvogel, J. J., & Smaling, E. M. A. (2012). Building a near infrared spectral library for soil organic carbon estimation in the Limpopo National Park, Mozambique. Geoderma, 183-184, 41-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.03.011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.03.011
Diallo, M. D., Ngamb, T., Tine, A. K., Guissé, M., Ndiaye, O., Mahamat Saleh, M., Diallo, A., Seck, S., Diop, A., & Guissé, A. (2015). Caractérisation agropédologique des sols de Mboltime dans la zone des Niayes (Sénégal). Agronomie Africaine, 27(1), 57-67.
Dormann, C. F., Elith, J., Bacher, S., Buchmann, C., Carl, G., Carré, G., García Márquez, J. R., Gruber, B., Lafourcade, B., Leitão, P. J., Münkemüller, T., McClean, C., Osborne, P. E., Reineking, B., Schröder, B., Skidmore, A. K., Zurell, D., & Lautenbach, S. (2013). Collinearity: A review of methods to deal with it and a simulation study evaluating their performance. Ecography, 36(1), 27-46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.07348.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.07348.x
Feller, C., & Beare, M. H. (1997). Physical control of soil organic matter dynamics in the tropics. Geoderma, 79(1-4), 69-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(97)00039-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(97)00039-6
Frossard, E., Condron, L. M., Oberson, A., Sinaj, S., & Fardeau, J. C. (2000). Processes governing phosphorus availability in temperate soils. Journal of Environmental Quality, 29(1), 15-23. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900010003x DOI: https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900010003x
Goovaerts, P. (1997). Geostatistics for natural resources evaluation. Oxford University Press, New York, 483 p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195115383.001.0001
Grimm, R., Behrens, T., Märker, M., & Elsenbeer, H. (2008). Soil organic carbon concentrations and stocks on Barro Colorado Island - Digital soil mapping using Random Forests analysis. Geoderma, 146(1-2), 102-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.05.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.05.008
Hengl, T., Heuvelink, G. B. M., & Rossiter, D. G. (2007). About regression-kriging: From equations to case studies. Computers & Geosciences, 33(10), 1301-1315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2007.05.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2007.05.001
Hengl, T., Mendes de Jesus, J., Heuvelink, G. B. M., et al. (2014). SoilGrids1km - Global soil information based on automated mapping. PLoS ONE, 9(8), e105992. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105992 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105992
Hengl, T., Miller, M. A. E., Križan, J., et al. (2021). African soil properties and nutrients mapped at 30 m spatial resolution using two-scale ensemble machine learning. Scientific Reports, 11, 6130. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85639-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85639-y
Jenny, H. (1941). Factors of soil formation: A system of quantitative pedology. McGraw-Hill, New York, 281 p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-194111000-00009
Keskin, H., & Grunwald, S. (2018). Regression kriging as a workhorse in the digital soil mapper’s toolbox. Geoderma, 326, 22-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.04.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.04.004
Kuhn, M., & Johnson, K. (2013). Applied predictive modeling. Springer, 625 p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6849-3
Kutner, M. H., Nachtsheim, C. J., Neter, J., & Li, W. (2004). Applied linear statistical models (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill, 1396 p.
Lamichhane, S., Kumar, L., & Wilson, B. (2019). Digital soil mapping algorithms and covariates for soil organic carbon mapping and their implications: A review. Geoderma, 352, 395-413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.05.031 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.05.031
Lark, R. M., & Papritz, A. (2003). Fitting a linear model of coregionalization for soil properties using simulated annealing. Geoderma, 115(3-4), 245-260. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(03)00065-X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(03)00065-X
McBratney, A. B., Mendonça Santos, M. L., & Minasny, B. (2003). On digital soil mapping. Geoderma, 117(1-2), 3-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(03)00223-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(03)00223-4
Minasny, B., & McBratney, A. B. (2016). Digital soil mapping: A brief history and some lessons. Geoderma, 264, 301-311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.07.017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.07.017
Mulder, V. L., de Bruin, S., Schaepman, M. E., & Mayr, T. R. (2011). The use of remote sensing in soil and terrain mapping: A review. Geoderma, 162(1-2), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.12.018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.12.018
Nziguheba, G., Zingore, S., Kihara, J., Merckx, R., Njoroge, S., Otinga, A., Vandamme, E., & Vanlauwe, B. (2016). Phosphorus in smallholder farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa: implications for agricultural intensification. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 104(3), 321-340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-015-9729-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-015-9729-y
Padarian, J., Minasny, B., & McBratney, A. B. (2020). Machine learning and soil sciences: A review aided by machine learning tools. SOIL, 6(1), 35-52. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-6-35-2020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-6-35-2020
Pouladi, N., Møller, A. B., Tabatabai, S., & Greve, M. H. (2019). Mapping soil organic matter contents at field level with Cubist, Random Forest and kriging. Geoderma, 342, 85-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.02.019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.02.019
R Core Team. (2024). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/
Roberts, D. R., Bahn, V., Ciuti, S., Boyce, M. S., Elith, J., Guillera-Arroita, G., Hauenstein, S., Lahoz-Monfort, J. J., Schröder, B., Thuiller, W., Warton, D. I., Wintle, B. A., Hartig, F., & Dormann, C. F. (2017). Cross-validation strategies for data with temporal, spatial, hierarchical, or phylogenetic structure. Ecography, 40(8), 913-929. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.02881 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.02881
Tittonell, P., & Giller, K. E. (2013). When yield gaps are poverty traps: The paradigm of ecological intensification in African smallholder agriculture. Field Crops Research, 143, 76-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2012.10.007
Towett, E. K., Shepherd, K. D., Tondoh, J. E., Winowiecki, L. A., Lulseged, T., Nyambura, M., Sila, A., Vågen, T.-G., & Cadisch, G. (2015). Total elemental composition of soils in Sub-Saharan Africa and relationship with soil forming factors. Geoderma Regional, 5, 157-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2015.06.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2015.06.002
Vågen, T.-G., Winowiecki, L. A., Abegaz, A., & Hadgu, K. M. (2013). Landsat-based approaches for mapping of land degradation prevalence and soil functional properties in Ethiopia. Remote Sensing of Environment, 134, 266-275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2013.03.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2013.03.006
Vanlauwe, B., Bationo, A., Chianu, J., Giller, K. E., Merckx, R., Mokwunye, U., Ohiokpehai, O., Pypers, P., Tabo, R., & Sanginga, N. (2010). Integrated soil fertility management: Operational definition and consequences for implementation and dissemination. Outlook on Agriculture, 39(1), 17-24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5367/000000010791169998
Viscarra Rossel, R. A., & Behrens, T. (2010). Using data mining to model and interpret soil diffuse reflectance spectra. Geoderma, 158(1-2), 46-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.12.025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.12.025
Vohland, M., Besold, B., Bouma, J., & Schwinning, S. (2011). Comparing different multivariate calibration methods for the determination of soil organic carbon pools with visible to near infrared spectroscopy. Geoderma, 166(1-2), 198-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2011.08.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2011.08.001
Wadoux, A. M. J. C., Minasny, B., & McBratney, A. B. (2020). Machine learning for digital soil mapping: Applications, challenges and suggested solutions. Earth-Science Reviews, 210, Article 103359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103359 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103359
Webster, R., & Oliver, M. A. (2007). Geostatistics for environmental scientists (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470517277 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470517277
Copyright (c) 2026 François Ngor Sene, Alexandre Badiane, Aïdara Chérif Amadou Lamine Fall , Modou Sene

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.


